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语言学总结

语言学总结
语言学总结

1. Linguistics/linguist(语言学)

Definition:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

2. Branches of general linguistics: central core(语言学的分支,中央核心)

Phonetics(语音学)

Phonology(音位学)

Morphology(形态学)

Syntax(句法)

Semantics(语义学)

Pragmatics(语用学)

3. Descriptive/prescriptive(描述,规定)

Descriptive study(描述性研究):1.Describe and analyze the language people actually use.2. Modern linguistics(现代语言学)is mostly descriptive. It is scientific(科学的)and objective (客观的).

Prescriptive study(规范研究):https://www.sodocs.net/doc/1c8213093.html,y down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language. 2. Tell people what they should say and what they should not say. 3. Traditional grammar(传统语法)is based on “high” written language and aims to set models for language users to follow.

4. Synchronic and diachronic(共时的,历时的)

Synchronic study(共时性研究):1.The description of a language at some point of time in history.

2. A synchronic approach enjoys priority(优先权)over a diachronic one.

Diachronic study(历时研究): The description of a language as it changes through time.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/1c8213093.html,ngue/parole<语言/言语>

(1). The distinction between the two concepts was made by F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.

(2). Who is Saussure?

F. de Saussure, Swiss Linguist--Father of Modern Linguistics.His work “Course in General Linguistics”<普通语言学> marks the beginning of modern linguistics.

(3).Langue: Abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Set of conventions and rules which all language users all have to abide by.

Parole:Realization of language in actual use.Concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.

Comparison: Langue:abstract; stable Parole: concrete; varied

In Saussure?s opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied, and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole. Competence and performance

The distinction between the two concepts was proposed by N. Chomsky in the late 1950?s. N. Chomsky, American Linguist,

(1) Competence:语言能力Ideal user?s knowledge of the rules of his language.

Performance: 语言运用Actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

总结:Distinction between the two pairs of notions:

Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view.

6 .Modern linguistics and the traditional grammar

Modern Linguistics: descriptive , 叙述性的Speech, Universal framework

Traditional Grammar:Prescriptive规范性的,Writing,Latin-based framework

7. Design features: Arbitrariness/Productivity/Displacement/Cultural transmission

1.what is language?

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols 任意的有声信号used for human communication.

Charles F. Hockett has written a book called a Course In Modern Linguistics

2.Design features of language结构特点

Arbitrariness(任意性)There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.

Productivity(创造性)Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

Duality(结构二重性)Lower level: a structure of meaningless sounds,Higher level: grouped and regrouped sounds with meaning

Displacement(不受时空限制的特征)Languages can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.

Cultural transmission(文化传递)The detailed of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.

8.Phonetics: Articulatary phonetics/auditory phonetics/acoustic phonetics

The study of sounds is divided into 3 areas:

(1) Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学

(2) Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学

(3) Acoustic phonetics声学语言学

9.①Pharyngeal cavity: the throat咽腔

②Oral cavity:the mouth口腔

③Nasal cavity: the nose鼻腔

10.IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标)

[辨International Phonetic Association 国际语音协会]

The first version of the IPA was published in 1888.The IPA has been revised and corrected several times and the present system of IPA derives mainly from one developed in the 1920s, by the British phonetician Daniel Jones(琼斯)and his colleagues at university of London.

11.①Place of articulation(发音部位)

[弱弱的补充一下]发音部位包括:bilabial双唇音.labiodental唇齿音.dental齿间音.alveolar 齿龈音.palatal硬腭音.velar软腭音.glottal声门音. Postalveolar后齿龈音.retroflex卷舌音.uvular 小舌音.pharyngeal咽音。

②Manner of articulation(发音方法)

包括:stop爆破音. Fricative摩擦音. Affricates破擦音. Lateral边音. (median)approximant中通音.

12.Phonology(音系学) and Phonetics(语音学)

Phonetics studied how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received.

Phonology is the study of the sound system of languages.

13. Phone: is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. (P23)

音素:是从音色的角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。

在语音学与音韵学中,音素一词所指的是说话时所发出的声音。音素是具体存在的物理现象。

Phone: does not necessarily distinguish meaning.Some do, some don’t. for example, [s] and [t] do, as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings, and [t h] and [t] don’t, as [stop] and [st h op] mean the same to a speaker of English.

Phoneme: is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.

音位:在某一特殊语种中的有限的发音类别中的一个,它的改变可以使该语言中的词汇与其他词汇区别开。音位应该与人体的发音严格的区分开,因为音位是指一个有规律的有限的发音系统而人体的发音则是无限的。音位是音位学的单位,而人体发音则是从医学或物理学角度考虑的声音效果。

Eg:/p/ p eak→[p h]→with a strong puff of air steam→aspirated

/p/ sp eak→[p]→the puff of air withheld→unaspirated

So /p/ is a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different context.

Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets, and phonemes in slashes, e. g. /p/, /l/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /m/…

Allophones : Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.

For example, the phoneme is /l/ can be realized as dark [I], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.

Similar sounds related in two ways:

1).Phonemic contrast: Two related distinctive phonemes.

/p/-[pit], [roup]

/b/-[bit], [roub]

2).Complementary distribution(互补分布): Allophones of the same phoneme occurring in different phonetic environment, which do not distinguish meaning.

Clear /l/-before a vowel: look, leap

Dark /l/-between a vowel and a consonants, or at the end of a word: till, nail, feel

Minimal pair:(最小对立体) A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound

segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.

Pill-bill, dill-gill, pill-till, till-kill, kill-dill, dill-gill

Beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat

音位的确定:

通过对比替换方法;

词首(pill/fill、pill/kill、till/dill、till/kill、kill/gill)、词中(lock/log、bit/bid、hurt/heard、trap/trash)、词尾(hit/hot、feet/foot、fail/full、beat/boot、bit/but)具有最小对立体;

元音、辅音(lob/lead、pot/dog、pill/bell)均可成为最小对立体。

14.Suprasegmental features9(超音段特征):he phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.

○1).Stress(重读):Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds

of stress: word stress and sentence stress.

The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. The noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the second syllable.

词重音实例:'import n. -- im'port v./'increase n. --in'crease v.'

Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements.

A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress.

Eg:lackbird:refers to a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black. (black ` bird)

greenhouse and green house, hotdog and hot dog

词重音实例(动名词与分词):The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns.

Eg:dining-room, reading glasses, sewing machine, sleeping baby, swimming fish

Two types:

1)one type, the -ing form serves as a modifier of the noun, e.g. dining-room, reading glasses. These are actually compound nouns.

As a rule, in pronouncing this type of -ing+ noun combinations , the word stress always falls on the first element; the second element receives secondary stress: 'dining- room, 'reading glasses, 'sewing machine.

2)the other type of -ing + noun combinations, the noun is actually the doer of the action indicated by the -ing form, e.g. sleeping baby, swimming fish.

These are not compound nouns, but noun phrases with an -ing participle modifier. For these combinations, the primary stress falls on the head noun, and the -ing form receives secondary stress.

Sentence stress refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence. The parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns; the other categories of words like articles,

person pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are usually not stressed.

○2Tone(音调):Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of

vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages.

English is not a tone language. Our mother tongue, Chinese, is a typical tone language. It has four tones. The first tone is level(阴平), the second rise(阳平), the third fall-rise(上声), and the fourth fall(去声). The role of the tone can be well illustrated by pronouncing the same sound combination such as "ma" in the four different tones:

ma(妈) m a(麻) ma (马) ma (骂)

○3Intonation(语调实例):When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather

than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.

English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.

Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.

Spoken in the falling-tone, version (1) simply states a fact, i. e., the book in question is not the one he wants. Version (2), said in the rising tone, indicates uncertainty on the part of the speaker; he is asking the question: Is that not the book he wants? Version (3),spoken in the fall-rise tone indicates that apart from what is said: literally, there is an implied message, i.e., besides telling the listener that the book in question is not the one he wants, the speaker implies that there is some other book he wants.

Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus (语核;音节核心)on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit. Within one intonation unit, the nucleus normally falls on the last stressed syllable. Shifting the nucleus to another syllable, normally stressed or unstressed, will cause difference in meaning.

15.Morphology(形态学):Linguists use the term morphology to refer to the part of the grammer that is concerned with word formation and word structure.

For example, a speaker of English who knows the verb read can recognize reader as the person who reads, and can construct and understand the words such as lip-read, sight-read, reading, reading-class, reading-room, etc

16. Open class(开放类):Nouns, verbs, adjectives and verbs (content words); can be

expanded.

Eg:Beatnik=beat+nik (noun) =a member of the Beat Generation

Closed class(封闭类):Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns (functional words); cannot be expanded.

Eg:Letter “e”:a new neutral third person singular pronoun, neither masculine nor feminine, which can be used as the general form.

Others, however, have pointed out that they/their are already being used as a neutral third person singular.eg:Anyone can join the club if they like. Everyone can do their best.

Of the two proposals, which one is the better candidate? As pronouns have "closed" nature, we predict that they/their will stand a better chance to serve this need than a completely new pronoun.

17..Open class开放词汇: Nouns, verbs, adjectives and verbs (content words); can be expanded. Closed class封闭词汇:Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns (functional words); cannot be expanded.

.Morphology语法:thus refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

.morpheme词素:Some words are formed by combining a number of distinct units of meaning. The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. A single word may consist of one or more morphemes.

Prefixes前缀: Thus un- is like dis- (disorder, disagree); it occurs only before other morphemes. Such morphemes are called prefixes.

Suffixes后缀:Other morphemes occur only as suffixes, i. e. only after other morphemes. Examples of such morphemes are -or (operator), -er (writer), and -ful (wonderful), to mention just a few.

Traditionally, these prefixes and suffixes have been called bound morphemes附着语素Morphemes like girl, rely and so on, can be used freely, so they are called free morphemes自由语素

These morphemes are conjoined to other morphemes (or words) a new word is derived, or formed, thus they called derivational morphemes派生语素

Some derivational morphemes do not change grammatical class

there are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. Such bound morphemes are referred to as inflectional morphemes屈折语素(曲折语素). They are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.

18.Syntax句法:It studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.What we are going to study is the simple version of transformational syntax.

19.1.Category(范畴)refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

20.A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories(句法范畴).

This classification reflects a variety of factors, including the type of meaning that words express, the type of affixes(词缀)that they take, and the type of structures in which they can occur.

The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories.

In traditional grammar only about eight categories (called parts of speech) are recognized, but all current theories of grammar have found it necessary to increase this number by the addition of such non-traditional categories as determiner (Det)限定词, degree words程度词(Deg) and qualifier (Qual)限定语.

Here word level categories are divided into two kinds:

major lexical categories(小词汇分类)and

minor lexical categories(主要词汇分类)

Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence formation. They differ from minor lexical categories in that they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built. Examples of some lexical categories

Major lexical categories

Examples:

Noun (N) book, boy, love, sheep

Verb (V) run, read, play

Adjective (A) happy, tall, clear

Preposition (P) about, over, on

Minor lexical categories

Examples:

Determiner (Det) the, a, this, those

Degree word (Deg) quite, very, more, so

Qualifier (Oual) often, always, seldom, almost

Auxiliary (Aux) must, should, can, might

Conjunction (Con) and, but, or

21. Phrase categories and their structures

1.1. Phrase categories

A. Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built..

B. The most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories : noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP).

C. Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head (中心语), specifier(标志语)and complement(补足语). The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head. The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. The words on the right side of the heads are complements.

1.2phrase structure rule

A. Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.

B. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:

NP→ (Det) N (PP) ...

VP→ (Qual) V (NP) ...

AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ...

PP→ (Deg) P (NP) ...

22. NP→VP→AP→PP

noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP) and prepositional phrase (PP)

23. Surface and deep structures

There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's sub-categorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).

24. Semantics

4.1. Definition: Semantics is the study of meaning.

4.2Some views concerning the study of meaning

A. The naming theory

This theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. It means that the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.

Two limitations:

(1)Applicable to nouns only

(2)Nouns do not always denote existing things and do not always refer to physical objects.

B.Conceptualist view

This view relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind.

This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

C.Contextualism

They hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context -- elements closely linked with language behavior. J.R. Firth, held the view that 'We shall know a word by the company it keeps,' and that 'By regarding words as acts, events, habits, we limit our inquiry to what is objective in the group life of our fellows."

Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.

D. Behaviorism

This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest. This view of meaning proposed by Bloomfield is illustrated by his story about Jack and Jill, represented by the figure below.

4.3 Lexical meaning

4.3.1 sense and reference

Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.

Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

4.3.2 major sense relations

4.3.2.1 synonymy

Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

English is rich in synonyms for historical reasons. In the English vocabulary there are two categories of words: native words and borrowed (loan) words.

4.3.2.2 Polysemy

While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have

more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word.

4.2.3.3 Homonymy

Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.

Homophones(同音异义词)

Homographs(同形异义词)

Complete homonyms(完全同形异义词)

4.3.2.4Hyponymy

Superordinate(上义词):The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.

Hyponyms(下义词):The more specific words are called its hyponyms.

Co-hyponyms(并列下义词):Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.

4.3.2.4 Antonymy

Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.

Gradable antonyms可分等级的反义词

Complementary antonyms互补反义词

Relational opposites关系反义词

4.4 Sense relations between sentences

i. X is synonymous with Y.

ii. X is inconsistent with Y.

iii. X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X. )

iv. X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X. )

v. X is a contradiction.

vi. X is semantically anomalous

4.5. analysis of meaning

componential analysis 成分分析

Predication analysis 述谓结构分析

25.Some views concerning the study of meaning

The naming theory: also called the referential theory. The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to or stands for.

★problems with the naming theory:

1) The theory seems applicable to nouns only.

2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all.

3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions.

4) Some words may have different meanings in different contexts.

5) The same reference may have different names. (The morning star Vs the evening star)

26.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; It is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.

2 Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

People suggest that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference. Why?

1) Every word has a sense but not every word has a reference. e.g.: but, if, and do not refer to anything. “god, ghost, dragon” refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality.

2) It is not convenient to explain the meaning of a word in terms of the thing it refers to. The thing a word stands for may not be at hand at the time of speaking.

3) There are cases when a reference can be expressed by more than one sense. e.g.:” Evening star” and “morning star” nearly always refers to Venus.

4) Some expressions have their reference totally dependent on context, eg: I, you, she.

27.Major Sense Relations

1)Homonymy: It refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both..

2) Polysemy: While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.

3) Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

4) Homograph: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.

28. Antonymy 反义关系

The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning, words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.反义关系用以指意义的相反。意义上相反的词叫反义词。

a)Gradable antonyms 分级反义词

Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree.

一些反义词是级别上的对立,因为一对这样的反义词中间常有其它表示程度的词。意义相反实际上只是程度问题。

示例:

Old 和young 是反义词,但它们代表两个极端,中间还存在着代表年老和年轻的不同程度的其它语言形式,如middle-aged, mature, elderly.

b)Complementary antonyms 互补反义词

A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. 互补反义词具有这样的特征,否定其中一个就意味着肯定另一个。也就是说,是一个非此即彼、非彼即此的问题。

示例:Male/ female alive/dead

c)Relational opposites 关系反义词

Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.

在意义上现实出逆向关系的一对词语叫关系反义词。

示例:Wife/ husband father/ son teacher/ pupil doctor/ patient buy/ sell above/ below

29.sentences have their own heads,they take an abstract category inflection(dubbed …lnfl?)as their heads, which indicates the sentence'tense and agreement. Infl takes an NP (the subject)as its specifier and a VP category as its complement. (图见50页)

30. predication analysis 谓述结构分析(句子间的逻辑关系)

A predication consists of arguments and predicate.

Before looking at the analysis of sentence meaning, two points about sentence meaning need be

clarified.

First, the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up the meaning of all its constituent words.

The second thing about sentence meaning is that there are two aspects to sentence

meaning:grammatical meaning and semantic meaning.

Predication analysis proposed by the British linguist G.Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms.

A predication consists of arguments and predicate.

An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.

For example:the predication of the sentence …Tom smokes? is said to consist of the argument …Tom? and the predicate …smoke? and the predication can be written as Tom(smoke)

Although predicate and argument are the same kind of unit in terms of the componential make up of a sentence, they have different roles in the predication. The predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality etc, and it May also be said to govern the arguments for it determines the number and nature of the arguments.

31. Pragmatics

pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics, its development and establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics.

32. pragmatics VS semantics

pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaning.

what essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. if it is not considered , the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics, if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.

33.Context:It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.

34.sentence meaning/utterance meaning Sentence meaning:The meaning of

a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication utterance meaning: The

meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

35.speech act: it is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher john Austin in the late 50s 0f the 20th century. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “what do we do when using language?”

36.Constatives/performatives:Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable; performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that didn’t state and were not verifiable.

37.Locutionary/illocutionary/perlocutionary acts

Austin's model of speech acts

According to his new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: Locutionary act

the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

Illocutionary act

the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. Perlocutionary act

the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.

38.Representatives/directives/expressives /commissives/declarations

Representatives/ stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true

directives/ trying to get the hearer to do something

expressives / committing the speaker himself to some future course of action

commissives/ expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state

declarations bringing about immediate changes by saying something

39.Cooperative Principle: maxims/conversational implicature

A philosopher and logician, Paul Grice made an attempt to explain the course of natural conversation, in which implied messages are frequently involved.

His idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.

The maxim of quantity

1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange)

2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

The maxim of quality

1. Do not say what you believe to be false.

2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

The maxim of relation

Be relevant

The maxim of manner

1. Avoid obscurity of expression.

2. Avoid ambiguity.

3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).

4. Be orderly.

These maxims can be violated for various reasons, but only when they are "flouted", to use Grice's term, does "conversational implicature" occur.

40.Addition of new words/loss of words/changes in the meaning of words

When we say one knows a language, we mean he knows what words and morphemes there are in that language. These basic units of meaning constitute the vocabulary, which is part of the grammar. Vocabulary change can include

a) addition of new words

Coinage Clipped words Blending Acronyms Back-formation Functional shift Borrowing

b) loss of words

The loss of words takes place gradually over the course of several generations

c) changes in the meaning of words

Widening of meaning Narrowing of meaning Meaning shift

41.Coined word/clipped word/blend/acronym

Coinage 新造词、创新词A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose

Clipped words缩略词

Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases

Blending 紧缩法

A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words

Acronyms首字母缩略词

Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words

42. Sociolinguistics (P 110)

Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.

43.Speech community (P111)

Speech community is defined as a group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms.

44. Varieties of language

Are the actual manifestations of the general notion of the general notion of the language and they are assumed to be related both to the user and to the use to which the language is put . Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.

45. Register:According to Halliday, "Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.”The type of langu age which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.

Linguistic repertoire: The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes

his linguistic repertoire.

Idiolect: Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.

Standard varieties: The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.

46. Pidgin: A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. The term is believed to have originated from the pronunciation of the English word "business" in Chinese Pidgin English.

Creole: When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.

Bilingualism: It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism.

Diglossia: The term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.

47. Culture:

①Broad Sense: Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.

②Narrow Sense: In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.

48. Despite the cultural differences, there exist a greater or lesser degree of cultural overlap between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.

Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion, which has been shaped gradually and unceasingly.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/1c8213093.html,nguage acquisition refers to the child's acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.

Second language acquisition (SLA), formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.

50.(1)Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. A child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people around him; people recognize the child's attempts

and reinforce the attempts by responding differently, the child repeats the right sounds or patterns to get the reward (reinforcement).

(2)The linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking.

Originally Chomsky referred to this innate ability as Language Acquisition Device, (also known as LAD).

(3)The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interactionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable for the child's capability is crucial in his language acquisition.

In the everyday life people often come across the situations in which adults speak differently when talking to little children, they use a "special" speech known as "motherese" or child directed speech (CDS) or "caretaker talk" to make themselves understood by the children.

51 Contrastive Analysis:In second/foreign language learning and teaching the basis of language instruction was the differences between the native language and target language, Contrastive Analysis (known as CA) came into fashion in the 1960s.

Error analysis:involves, first independently or objectively, describing the learners' interlanguage (that is, their version of the target language and the target language itself), then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches. Different from contrastive analysis, error analysis gave less consideration to learners' native language. 52Interlanguage:The concept of inter language was established as learners' independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. What learners produce, correct or wrong, are evidence of the approximation from their first language to the target language.

Fossilization is defined as (in second and foreign language teaching) a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning.

53 Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.

sociolinguistics:The study of the relation between language and society--a branch of both linguistics and sociology. Sometimes called the sociology of language.simply put,sociolinguistics is the study of language in use.

语言学重点概念总结

Design features(定义特征): the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic(共时的): said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic(历时的): said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive(规定式): to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive(描写式): to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence(语言能力): unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance(语言运用):

the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue(语言): the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole(言语): the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology(音系学): the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet(国际音标): a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include

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语言学总结

In chapter seven,I learn about the relationship between language and culture 、London School、Linguists in North Americian、Malinowski Guinea 、SAPIR-WHOF HYPOTHES and sociolinguistics. At the first,I learn the relationshp between language and culture.(1)Language is an essential and importantpart of a given culture ;the impact of culture upon a given language is something intrinsic and indispensable.(2)Culture is a wider syatem that completely includes language as a subsystem.The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.(3)Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality.(4)Language plays a major role in perpetuating culture in part form.(5)Culture affects language. Secondly,,I understand how language relates culture.At the beginning of the eighteenth century,they think that language is either comparative and historical or structural and formalized in https://www.sodocs.net/doc/1c8213093.html,ter, at the start of the 20th century ,the study of language was developed in England and North America.In the 1920s ,a school of ANTHROPOLOTICAL STUDY OF LINGUISTICS came into being in England.The meaning of a word greatly depended upon its occurrence in a given context,for example “wood’’.Malinowski created the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUA TION,and J.R.Firth developed the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUATION. M.A.K Halliday further developed this theory,who is the founder of systemic-functional linguistics. Tirdly,I learn a very influential and controversial theory about the relationships between language and culture .Benjamin Lee Whorf is famous in hypothesis concerning language,thought,and culture.His famous theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES was developed with the help of his experience and his study of Hopi ,an American Indian language.What this hypothesis suggests is this :Our language helps mould our way of thinking and,consequently,different language may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.Due to the theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES,two important points came into the world.one is LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM,and the other is LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY.LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM means that language may determine our thinking patterns,and LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY means that similarity between languages is https://www.sodocs.net/doc/1c8213093.html,ter,,Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed,a strong version and a weak version.The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes ,emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak

(完整版)初中文学常识汇总

6.《左传》,我国第一部编年体史书,旧传为春秋时期左秋明所作,近人认为是战国时人所编,是一部史学名著和文学名著。《曹刿论战》 7.《战国策》,是一部国别体史书。主要记述了战国时期的纵横家的政治主张和策略,由西汉末年刘向根据战国史书整理而成。《唐雎不辱使命》《邹忌讽齐王纳谏》 8.《史记》,我国第一部纪传体通史,记载了从黄帝到汉武帝长达三千年的历史。被鲁迅称为“史家之绝唱,无韵之《离骚》”。 司马迁,字子长,西汉杰出的史学家、文学家、思想家。《陈涉世家》 9.史书:①编年体:《左传》《资治通鉴》;②纪传体:《史记》及其他二十四史;③国别体:《战国策》《国语》。 10.曹操,字孟德,东汉末年政治家、军事家、诗人。他的诗以慷慨悲壮见称。《观沧海》《龟虽寿》。 11.陶渊明,又名潜,字元亮,别号五柳先生,东晋著名诗人,我国第一位田园诗人。《桃花源记》《归园田居》《饮酒》《五柳先生传》 12.《水经注》,作者郦道元,北魏地理学家、散文家。《水经》是古代一部记我国河流水道的书,郦道元为之作注。《三峡》

13.王维,字摩诘,曾官至尚书右丞,故世人称"王右丞",晚年醉心佛学,被称为“诗佛”,作品多有空灵之感,擅长书画,苏轼赞之为“诗中有画,画中有诗”。《使至塞上》《《送元二使安西》《竹里馆》 14.李白,字太白,号青莲居士,唐代伟大的浪漫主义诗人,后世尊为“诗仙”。其诗想象丰富,感情奔放,语言瑰丽活泼。《行路难》《闻王昌龄左迁龙标遥有此寄》《宣州谢朓楼饯别校书叔云》 15.杜甫,字子美,自称少陵野老,世称杜少陵,唐代伟大的现实主义诗人,后世尊为“诗圣”,曾任工部员外郎,后世称为"杜工部"。他忧国忧民,人格高尚,作品风格沉郁顿挫。代表作为“三吏”“三别”。《江南逢李龟年》《石壕吏》《茅屋为秋风所破歌》《春望》《望岳》 16.白居易,字乐天,晚年又叫香山居士,唐代伟大的现实主义诗人。其诗反映人民疾苦,语言通俗易懂,作品收在《白氏长庆集》。《钱塘湖春行》《观刈麦》。 17.韩愈,字退之,世称韩昌黎,唐代文学家,唐宋八大家之首。积极提倡古文运动,恢复古代朴实文风。《马说》《左迁至蓝关示侄孙湘》《早春呈水部张十八员外》 18.柳宗元,字子厚,唐代文学家,唐宋八大家之一,和韩愈一起积极提倡古文运动。《小石潭记》 19.杜牧,字牧之,号樊川,晚唐诗人,与李商隐并称"小李杜"。《赤壁》《泊秦淮》

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