专业英语的翻译技巧

专业英语的翻译技巧

一、概论

1.翻译的标准

我国清末翻译家严复认为翻译的标准：信、达、雅。所谓“信”，就是忠实原作，不任意曲解；所谓“达”，即通顺，流畅；而“雅”，则是文字优美，高雅。由于专业英语本身注重表现技术问题的科学性、逻辑性、正确性和严密性，所以，专业英语的翻译标准更侧重于“信”和“达”（或“顺”）。

【例】The importance of building modern road can not be overestimated in the economic development.

在经济发展中，修建现代化道路的重要性无论怎么估计也不过分。

【例】A novel solution to car which runs out of control into bridge abutments and the like has become popular in North America although not yet in Europe.

对于如何避免汽车在失去控制时撞到墩柱上或别的类似的物体上，已经有了一种新的解决办法。这种办法在北美已普遍使用，然而在欧洲却未能做到这一点。

【例】Grouting of the tendons usually follows the freedom of the ducts from obstruction.

钢束灌浆之前，孔道应畅通无阻。

2.翻译的过程

（1）阅读理解

阅读理解阶段应注意：一是正确地理解原文的词汇含义、句法结构和习惯用法，二是要准确地理解原文的逻辑关系。

【例】Pavement are classified as “rigid” or “flexible”,depending on how they distribute surface loads.

按照传递表面荷载情况，路面可分为“刚性的”或“柔性的”。

（2）汉语表达

表达阶段的任务就是译者根据其对原文的理解，使用汉语的语言形式恰如其分地表达原作的内容。

【例】Action is equal to reaction, but it acts in a contrary direction.

译一：作用相等于反作用，但它在相反的方向起作用。

译二：作用与反作用相等，但作用的方向相反。

译三：作用力与反作用力大小相等，方向相反。

（3）检查校核

在翻译初稿完成之后，需反复仔细校对原文和译文，尽可能避免漏译、误译。【例】The practice of employing rubber reinforced as bridge supports to allow for temperature movements and variations in foundation is well established, and half of all new bridges are now built in the U.K. in this way.

桥梁采用加劲橡胶支座已成为通行的做法，这样能适应温度位移和基础变位，目前在英国所有新建桥梁中，大约有一半采用了这种支座。

二、英汉语言对比

（一）词汇的对比

1．词义

（1）英汉词汇意义一一对应，如

civil engineering = 土木工程（学）

flexible pavement = 柔性路面

arch bridge = 拱桥

（2）英语词汇意义比汉语更广，如

material > 材料

machine > 机器

reduce > 减少

（3）英语词汇意义不及汉语广，如

car < 汽车

university < 大学

road < 道路

（4）英语词汇与相应汉语词汇只是部分对应，两者的意义都有彼此不能覆盖的部分，如

beat >< 打

do >< 做

state >< 国家

2.词的搭配

英语和汉语在词的搭配能力方面往往有差异，翻译时需要酌情选择适当的汉语词汇。例如：

reduce speed 减低车速

reduce to powder 粉碎

reduce the temperture 降低温度

reduce the time 缩短时间

reduce construction expense 削减工程开支

reduce the scale of construction 缩减工程规模

reduce the numbers of traffic accidents 减少交通事故

【例】First, curing measures should be selected which will give long road life and good road surface.

首先，应当选择能延长道路寿命和获得优质路面的养护措施。

【例】Two or more computers can also be operated together to improve performance or system reliability.

也可同时操作两台以上的计算机，以改善其性能或提高系统的可靠性。

3.词序

（1）定语的位置

英语中单词作定语时，通常位于所修饰的名词前，但也有少数单词要求后置。汉语的单词作定语一般都前置，如：

movable span 活动跨

journey speed 运行速度

something important 重要的事情

英语中短语作定语一般位于所修饰的名词之后，汉语通常需要前置，间或也有后置的情况，看汉语的习惯。例如：

a building project of high-rise apartment houses 高层公寓大楼的建筑项目

one of the common defects in bridge maintenance 桥梁养护中普遍存在的问题之一

（2）状语的位置

英语中单词作状语，其位置有三种情况：修饰形容词或其他状语时需要前置，修饰动词时可前置也可后置，表示程度的状语在修饰状语时通常前置，但也有后置的情况。在汉语中状语一般都需要前置。

英语中短语状语可放在被修饰的动词之前或之后，甚至可插入情态动词（或助动词）与实义动词之间。译成汉语时，通常需放在所修饰的动词之前，但也有后置的情况，这要视汉语的习惯而定。

【例】The forces keeping the beam straight must, by a fundamental law of statics, equal the load tending to fold it up.

根据静力学原理，使梁保持平直的力必定等于将其压弯的荷载。

【例】To the extent possible, the foundation concrete is placed keeping the excavation dry.

应尽可能在保持基坑干燥的情况下灌筑基础混凝土。

（二）句法的对比

1.句子结构

（1）英语简单句结构转换成汉语复合句结构

【例】Considered from this point of view, the question will be of great importance.

如果从这点考虑，这个问题就十分重要。

【例】In a simple form, the cables provided above the deck and connected to the tower would permit elimination of intermediate piers facilitating a larger width for purposes of navigation.

简而言之，在桥面上方设置缆索与桥塔连接，则可不设置中间桥墩，因而可增加跨度，便于通航。

（2）英语复合句结构转换成汉语简单句结构

【例】Water power stations are always built where there are very great falls.

水力发电站总是建在落差很大的地方。

【例】It is essential that civil engineering students have a good knowledge of mechanics.

学土木工程的学生掌握力学知识是极为重要的。

（3）英语复合句结构转换成汉语不同的复合句结构

【例】Electronic computers, which have many advantages, cannot carry out creative work.

虽然电子计算机有许多优点，但它们不能进行创造性的工作。

（4）英语的倒装句转换成汉语正常语序

【例】Then comes the analysis( or computation) of internal forces.

接下来进行内力分析（或计算）。

（5）英语被动结构转换成汉语主动结构，反之亦然

【例】Soil mechanics and soil stabilization techniques have been used in the construction of footings for railroad lines as well as for other kinds of construction.

在铁路以及其它建筑的基础施工中，已采用了土力学和土壤稳定技术。

2.句序

（1）时间顺序

英语复合句中，表示时间的从句可以置于主句之前或之后，叙述顺序很灵活，汉语则先发生的事先说，后发生的事后说，而且汉语的时间通常位于句首。

【例】One must inevitably touch upon the technical aspect when discussing the parking problems, and the means of tackling it.

在讨论汽车停放问题和解决办法时，必然会触及到与该问题有关的技术环节。（2）逻辑顺序

英语复合句若是表示因果关系或条件与结果关系，其叙述顺序比较灵活，原因从句或条件从句可以位于主句之前或之后，而汉语中大多是原因或条件在前，结果在后。【例】This time no one was killed or injured in the accident, for great attention was paid to safety.

由于安全问题受到重视，这次事故中无人身伤亡。

三、专业文献翻译的基本方法

（一）直译

直译包括：一是保留原文的语法结构，即对原语序和词序基本上不作变动；二是保留原文词语的字面意义。

【例】Internet is of great help to our work.

因特网对我们的工作大有帮助。

【例】Bridges and tunnels are great symbols of mankind’s conquest of obstruction.

桥梁和隧道是人类征服障碍的伟大象征。

（二）转换

1. 词义转换

（1）词义引申

【例】The choice of material in construction of bridges is basically between steel or concrete, and the main trouble with concrete is that its tensil strength is very small.

钢材和混凝土是桥梁建筑的基本资料，混凝土的主要缺点是抗拉强度很低。

（2）词义具体化

【例】There are many things that should be considered in any engineering planning decision.

在任何工程规划的决策中，有许多因素应当考虑。

（3）词义抽象化

【例】We have progressed a long way from the early days of aerial surveys.

航空测量自从出现以来，已经有了很大的发展。

2. 词性转译

（1）转译成动词

a. 介词转译成动词

【例】Rigid pavements are made from rigid cement concrete.

刚性路面是用刚性水泥混凝土建造的。

【例】The Eads bridge was completed in 1874 over the Mississippi at St Louis, Missouri.

伊兹桥建成于1874年，它位于密苏里州圣路易斯，横跨密西西比河。

b. 名词转译成动词

【例】In spite of the growth of other kinds of transport, railroads continue to be, as they used to be over years, the backbone of the transportaion industry.

尽管其他各种交通工具都发展了，铁路仍一如既往，充当着运输业的骨干。

c. 形容词转译成动词

【例】They are confident that they will be able to build the modern bridge in a short time.

他们确信在短时间内能够建成这座现代化桥梁。

d. 副词转译成动词

【例】An exhibition of new building materials is on there.

那里正在举办新型建筑材料的展览会。

【例】The construction of the dam was two months behind.

这座大坝的施工工期延误了两个月。

（2）转译成名词

a. 动词转译成名词

【例】Mechanical tabilization i s chiefly characterized by its maximum usage of locally available materials in highway embankments.

机械稳定法的主要特点是它能最大限度地利用当地现成材料修建路堤。

【例】These cracks, however, must be closely watched, for they are constantly being attacked by unfavorable environments.

由于经常受到不利环境因素的侵蚀，这些裂缝必须加以密切观察。

b. 形容词转译成名词

【例】Of those stresses the former is compressive stress and the latter is tensile stress.

在这两种应力中，前者是压应力，后者是拉应力。

c. 副词转译成名词

【例】Structural drawings must be dimensionally correct.

结构图的尺寸必须准确。

【例】The location of the tunnel is shown schematically on this page.

这一页上所表示的是隧道位置的简图。

（3）转译成形容词

a. 名词转译成形容词

【例】The methods of prestressing a structure show considerable variety.

对结构施加预应力的方法是多种多样的。

【例】This experiment is an absolte necessity in determining the best water-cement ratio.

对确定最佳水灰比而言，这次实验是绝对必需的。

b. 副词转译成形容词

【例】It is a fact that no structural material is perfectly elastic.

事实上，没有一种结构材料是完全的弹性体。

（4）转译成副词

a. 形容词转译成副词

【例】Engineers have made a careful study of the properties of these new structures.

工程师们仔细地研究了这些新型结构的特性。

b. 名词转译成副词

【例】We find difficulty in solving this problem.

我们觉得难于解决这个问题。

3. 句子成分的转换

【例】Attempts were made to find out measures for reducing construction expenses.

曾试图找到削减工程开支的措施。

【例】The test results are in good agreement with those obtained by theoretical deduction.

试验结果与理论推导者完全一致。

4. 句子结构的转换

（三）省略

省略就是将原文中的某些词语略去不译，但决不能损害原文的思想内容，删减的应该是一些可有可无的、没有实意的词。

1. 省略冠词

【例】A beam bridge is the simplest type of span.

梁桥是最简单的桥跨结构。

【例】The memory is the important part of a computer system.

存储器是计算机系统中的重要组成部分。

2. 省略代词

【例】If you know the internal forces, you can determine the proportion of members.

如果知道内力，就能确定构件尺寸。

【例】A fine bridge engineer, Shirley Smith, who was the contractor’s agent for the

Forth Road Bridge, has written very well about his love of bridge work in his book Great Bridges of the World.

曾担任福斯公路桥承包代理人的优秀桥梁工程师雪莉·斯密斯在他的著作《世界大桥》一书中出色地表达了他对桥梁工程的热爱。

3. 省略动词

【例】All kinds of excavators perform basically similar functions but appear in a variety of forms.

各种挖土机的作用基本相同，但形式不同。

【例】The flow chart shown in Fig.1 intended to illustrate the programming process.

图1为说明程序设计过程的流程图。

4. 省略介词

【例】Most substances expand on heating and contract on cooling.

大多数物质热胀冷缩。

5. 省略连词

【例】In downstream areas where the river passes through a broad gentle flood plain, civil engineers may be asked to build flood protection works.

在下游地区，河流经过的广阔平缓的洪泛平原，需要土木工程师修建防洪工程。

6. 省略意义上重复的词

【例】The mechanical energy can be changed back into electrical energy by means of a generator or dynamo.

机械能可利用发电机再转变成电能。

（四）增补

增补指在翻译时根据句法上，意义上或修辞上的需要增加或重复一些词，以便能更加忠实通顺地表达原文。当然，不能随意增添译者自己的观点和想法。

1. 根据句法上的需要

【例】Hence the reason why regulations to control parking in towns are so often viewed with suspicion by Chambers of Commerce.

因此，这正是商会总是以怀疑的眼光对待城市管理停车条例的原因。

2. 根据意义上的需要

（1）英语复数名词的增译

【例】the first production 第一批产品the

the experts 专家们

（2）英语中表示动作意义名词的增译

【例】Oxidation will make iron and steel rusty.

氧化作用会使钢铁生锈。

（3）在英语名词或动名词前后增译汉语动词

【例】Testing is a complicated problem and long experience is required for its mastery.

进行试验是一个复杂的问题，需要有长期的经验才能掌握。

（4）增译解说性的词

【例】Air pressure decreases with altitude.

气压随海拨高度的增加而下降。

（5）增译概括性的词

【例】A designer must have a good foundation in statics, kinematics, dynamcis and strength of materials.

设计人员必须在静力学、运动学、动力学和材料力学这四个方面有良好的基础。

3. 根据修辞上的需要

【例】The question is really a route selection rather than a drainage problem.

这个问题确实与选线有关，而不是排水的问题。

【例】The Japanse have developed a new type of machine called moles, which can bore through soft and hard rock by mechanical means.

日本人已研制出一种名叫鼹鼠掘进机的新型机械，这种掘进机使用机械方法既可挖掘软岩又可挖掘硬岩。

4. 重复上文出现过的词

【例】An alternative way to use reinforcement is to stretch it by hydraulic jacks before the concrete is poured around it.

另一种方法是先用液压千斤顶把钢筋拉长，然后在钢筋周围浇灌混凝土。

【例】Y ou may do the experiment whenever you have time.

什么时候你有时间，你就在什么时候做这个实验。

【例】A synthetic material equal to that alloy in strength has been created, which is very useful in civil engineering.

一种在强度上和那种合金相等的合成材料已经制造出来了，这种合成材料在土木工程中很有用。

四、特殊句型的翻译

（一）被动句型

1. 译成汉语主动句

（1）原文中的主语在译文中仍作主语，将被动语态的谓语译成“加以……”，“是……的”等。

【例】Distances between elevations are measured in a horizontal plane.

高程之间的（斜）距离是用其水平投影来测量的。

（2）原文中的主语在译文中作宾语，将英语句译成汉语的无主语句，或加译“人们”、“我们”、“大家”、“有人”等词作主语。

【例】Attempts are also being made to produce concrete with more strength and durability, and with a lighter weight.

目前仍在尝试生产强度更高、耐久性更好，而且重量更轻的混凝土。

（3）用英语句中的动作者（通常放在介词by后）作汉语句中的主语

【例】The top layers was bound together more firmly by mixing the crushed rock with asphalt.

用沥青掺拌碎石能使表层更坚固地粘结在一起。

（4）将英语句中的一个适当成分译成汉语句中的主语

【例】Much progress has been made in civil engineering in less than one century.

不到一个世纪，土木工程学取得了许多进展。

2. 译作汉语被动句

【例】The model equation is reconciled by mathematical calculations with the actual situation.

通过数学计算使模型方程符合实际情况。

3. 把原句中的被动语态谓语动词分离出来，译成一个独立结构

【例】It is believed that the automobile is blamed for such problems as urban area expansion and wasteful land use, congestion and slum conditions in the central areas, and air and noise pollution.

有人认为汽车造成一系列问题，如城市膨胀、土地浪费、市区拥挤、油污遍地以及空气和噪声污染等。

这种方法常用于一些固定句型中，类似的结构还有：

It is asserted that… 有人主张…

It is suggested that… 有人建议…

It is stressed that… 有人强调说…

It is generally considered that… 大家认为…

It is told that… 有人曾经说…

It is well known that… 众所周知…

有时，某些固定句型翻译时不加主语，如：

It is hoped that… 希望…

It is supposed that… 据推测…

It is said that… 据说…

It must be admitted that… 必须承认…

It must be pointed out that… 必须指出…

It will be seen from this that… 由此可见…

（二）否定句型

1. 部分否定

英语中all, both, every, each等词与not搭配使用时，表示部分否定。

【例】All these building materials are not good products.

这些建筑材料并不都是优质产品。（不能译成“所有这些建筑材料都不是优质产品”）类似的结构还有：“not…many”（不多），“not…much”（一些），“not…often”（不经常），“not…always”（别总是）等。

2. 意义否定

【例】The analysis is too complicated us to complete the computation on time.

分析工作太复杂，难以按时完工。

常见的词组还有：

but for 如果没有

in the dark 一点也不知道

free from 没有，免于

safe from 免于

short of 缺少

far from 远非，一点也不

in vain 无效，徒劳

but that 要不是，若非

make light of 不把…当一回事

fail to 没有

3. 双重否定

【例】There is no material but will deform more or less under the action of force.

在力的作用下，没有一种材料不或多或少地发生变形。

常见的搭配还有：

not…until 直到…之后，才能

never…without 每逢…总是

not(none)…the less 并不…就不

not a little 大大地

（三）强调句型

1. 强调句型“It is(was) + 被强调部分+ that(which, who)…”几乎可用于强调任何一个陈述句的主语、宾语或状语。

【例】It is these drawbacks which need to be eliminated and which have led to the search for new methods of construction.

正因为有这些缺点需要清除，才导致了对施工新方法的研究探求。

【例】It is this kind of steel that the construction worksite needs most urgently.

建筑工地最急需的正是这种钢。

2. “It is (was) not until + 时间状语+ that…”是强调时间状语常见的一种句型，可译成“直到…才…”。

【例】It was not until1936 that a great new bridge was built across the Forth at Kincardine.

直到1936年才在肯卡丁建成一座横跨海口的新大桥。

3. 在强调句中，被强调的部分不仅可以是一个词或词组，而且还可能是一个状语从句。【例】It is not until the stiff concrete can be placed and vibrate properly to obtain the designed strength in the field that the high permissible compressive stress in concrete can be utilized.

只有做到在工地正确灌筑振捣干硬性混凝土并使之达到设计强度时，才能充分利用混凝土容许压应力。

五、长句的翻译Translation of Long Sentence

理解长句大体可以分为两个步骤进行：

（1）判断出句子是简单句、并列句，还是主从句；

（2）先找出句中的主要成分，即主语和谓语动词，然后再分清句中的宾语、状语、表语、宾语补足语、定语等。

（一）顺译法

对专业英语而言，一般应尽量采用顺译。顺译有两个长处：一是可以基本保留英语语序，避免漏译。力求在内容和形式两方面贴近原文；二是可以顺应长短句相替、单复句相间的汉语句法修辞原则。

1. 在主谓连接处切断（用“|”表示）

【例】The main problem in the design of the foundations of a multi-storey building under which the soil settles is |to keep the total settlement of the building within reasonable limits, | but specially to see that the relative settlement from one column to the next is not great.

在土壤沉降处设计多层建筑基础的主要问题，就是要使建筑物的总沉降量保持在合理的限度内，而且特别要注意相邻柱子之间的相对沉降量不能过大。

2. 在并列或转折连接处切断

【例】Jointly or separately Council Committees and subsidiary commissions study the problems | submit recommendations to the Council in due time.

理事会各委员会及辅助委员会可单独或共同研究此类问题，并适时向理事会提出建议。

3. 在从句前切断

【例】In the course of designing a structure, you have to take into consideration | what kind of load structure will be subjected to, | where on the structure the said load will do what is expected and |whether the load on the structure is applied suddenly or gradually.

在设计结构时必须考虑到：结构将承受什么样的荷载，荷载作用在结构的什么位置，起什么作用，以及这荷载是突然施加的，还是逐渐施加的。

（二）倒译法Methods of Translation in Inverted Sentence

翻译时只要能做到顺译，就不一定非倒置不可，在大多数情况下，倒置也只是一种变通手段，并不是唯一可行的办法。

1. 将英语原句全部倒置

【例】About one third of all accidents happen when it is dark, although obviously there is more traffic during daytime.

虽然在白天交通运输显然繁忙得多，但大约三分之一的交通事故发生在晚上。

2. 将英语原句部分倒置（将句首或首句置于全句之尾）

【例】It is most important that the specifications should describe every construction item which enters into the contract, the materials to be used and the tests they must meet, methods of constructions in particular situations, the method of measurement of each item and the basis on which payment should be calculated.

对于合同所列的各项施工项目、需要的材料及其检验要求、具体条件下的施工方法、每个施工项目的验收方法以及付款计算的依据等，说明书中都应加以详细说明，这一点是十分重要的。

（三）拆译法

为汉语行文方便，有时可将英文原文的某一短语或从句先行单独译出，并利用适当的概括性词语或通过一定的语法手段把它同主语联系在一起，进行重新组织。

【例】The loads a structure is subjected to are divided into dead loads, which include the weights of all the parts of the structure, and live loads, which are due to the weights of people, movable equipment, etc.

结构物受到的荷载分为静载和活载两种。静载包括该结构物各部分的重量，活载是由人群、可移动设备的重量等等所引起的。（增加概括性词“两种”）

【例】The integrated products quality control system used by thousands of enterprises in Russian is a combination of controlling bodies and objects under control interacting with the help of material, technical and information facilities when exercising QC at the level of an enterprise.

俄罗斯成千上万家企业采用的产品质量综合管理体系，是通过在整个企业范围内实行质量管理、把企业内各个管理机构和各种管理对象联结一起的综合体，这种联结是借助于材料部门、技术部门和信息部门实现的。

（四）定语从句的处理

1. 译成前置定语

【例】This is generally the only of the examination from which candidates are never excused, whatever their civil engineering degree.

不论具有何等土木工程学位，该项测验通常是申请者唯一不能免试的考试项目。

2. 译成并列句

【例】Their main interest is in large dams, where they may reduce the heat given out by the cement during hardening.

它们主要用于大型水坝，在大坝中他们能减少水泥硬化时释放出的热量。

3. 译成状语从句

【例】This is particularly important in fine-grained soils where the water can be sucked up near the surface by capillary attraction.

在细颗粒土壤中这一点尤其重要，因为在这种土壤中，由于毛细作用，水能被吸引到靠近道路表面的地方。

4. 译成单句中的一部分

【例】Fig.1 incorporates many of the factors which must be considered in developing a satisfactory system.

图1所示的许多因素，在研制一个性能良好的系统时必须予以考虑。（译成谓语）【例】Soft-rock tunneling has its main characteristic in tunneling process which needs no explosives.

软岩隧道施工的主要特点是，在施工过程中无需炸药。（译成表语）

六、有关数量的翻译

（一）数量的增加

1. 非倍数的增加（数量的净增）

数量的净增指的是纯数量的增加，可以直接译出数字。

【例】New booster can increase the payload by 120%。

新型助推器能使有效负载增加120%。

【例】205 increased by 203 is 408.

205加203等于408.

【例】The room is bigger than the lab by six square meters.

这个房间比实验室大6平方米。

2. 成倍增加（非净增量的增加）

非净增量的增加，即倍数的增加。基本句型有以下几种：

(1) A is N times as large (long, heavy, …) as B.

(2) A is N times larger (longer, heavier, …) than B.

A is larger (longer, heavier, …) than

B by N times.

(3) A is N times B

均可译成：A的大小（长度，重量，…）是B的N倍，或A比B大（长，重，…）N-1倍。

【例】Asia is four times as large as Europe. 亚洲面积比欧洲大3倍。

【例】In equal amounts, fats will produce two and a quarter times as much heat as starches and sugers.

在等量的情况下，脂肪产生的热量是淀粉和糖类的2.25倍。

【例】The temperature on the site may be 40 times higher in summer as compared to winter.

工地的夏季气温可能是冬季气温的40倍。

【例】This chemical substance reacts three times faster than the other one.

这种化学物质的反应速度是另一种物质的三倍。

【例】The liquor was diluted with water to five times its original value.

溶液用水稀释到其原来体积的五倍。

【例】The gross agricultural output for 1990 grew up to three times that for 1960.

1990年农业总产值增长到1960年的三倍。

3. increase类表增加的动词（to, by）+ N times/ N fold/ by a factor of N

此句型含义也是“增加到原来的N倍”或“增加了N-1倍”。

【例】Such construction procedure can increase productivity over threefold.

这种施工工序可使生产率提高到3倍以上。（即提高了2倍多）

在这个句型中，increase类动词也经常以名词的形式出现。

【例】The composites showed a two-fold increase in modulus of elasticity.

这些复合材料的弹性模量比单纯基体材料增大了一倍。

有些单词可直接表示倍数关系，如double（增加一倍，翻一番），treble（增加两倍或增加到三倍），quadruple（增加三倍，翻两番）等，可以不与具体倍数连用。

【例】If the speed is doubled, keeping the radius constant, the centripetal force becomes four times as great.

若保持半径不变，速度增大一倍，则向心力增大为原来的4倍。（即增大了3倍）可见，以上所列句型在译成汉语时，都要将句中的倍数“减一”，但是，如果倍数是

一个相当大的近似值，差一倍没有多大意义时，往往可以照译，不必“减一”。

【例】The sun is 330,000 times as large as the earth.

太阳是地球的330，000倍。/ 太阳比地球大330，000倍。

4. 数量增加的特殊表达法

i)英语中，“比……大一半”有其特殊的表达方式：

half as much (many, large, fast等)again as

或half again as much (many, large, fast等) as

上面两个句型表示“大一半”或“是……的一倍半”。

【例】The resistance of aluminium is approximately half again as great as that of copper for the same dimensions.

尺寸相同时，铝的电阻为铜的一倍半。

ii)在表示“是……的两倍”时，也有多种表达方式：

as much (many, large, fast等) again as

again as much as

double

以上句型表示“大一倍”或“是……的两倍”

【例】This year we have produced as many TV sets again as compared with last year.

今年我厂生产的电视机比去年多一倍。

iii)表示数量的增加并不一定都用有增加意义的动词，专业英语中还有很多灵活的用法。比如，有时用“equal”或“equivanlent”来表示。

【例】But weighing the comparative tonnage, and not the number of ships, then one American ship equals four of the Soviet.

但若比较的不是两方船只的数量，而是船只的吨位，则美国的要比苏联的大三倍。

（二）数量的减少

1. 数量的净减

纯粹数的减少指具体数量的减少、百分比的减少。数字照译，通常译成“减少了n”。【例】The temperature fell to 26 degrees below zero.

温度降到零下26度。

【例】The pressure will be reduced to one-fourth of its original value.

压力将减少到原来数值的四分之一。

2. 成倍减少

语句中表示成倍减少含义时，通常包含以下句子成分：

reduce by N times reduce N times as much(many…) as

reduce N times reduce by a factor of N

reduce to N times reduce N-fold

N-fold reduction N times less than

均可译成“减少了（N-1）/N”或“减少到原来的1/N”。

例如，reduce 3 times 可译为“减少了2/3”或“减少到原来的1/3”。

【例】The production cost has reduced four times.

生产成本减少了3/4。（即减少到原来的1/4）

【例】The advantage of the present scheme lies in a fivefold reduction in manpower.这一

方案的优点在于节约人工4/5。（即节约到原来的1/5）

3.decrease类动词（to,by）+N times(N-fold)

该句型意义是：“减少了1-1/N”或“减少到原来的1/N”

【例】The prices of medicine have been reduced four times as compared with 1950.

药品价格与1950年相比降低了75%。

【例】There has been a five-fold decrease in our imports this year.

我们今年的进口物品减少了五分之四。

【例】The price of this medicine has been reduced by 2.5 times.

此种药品的价格已降低到原来的五分之二。

4.数量减少的特殊用法

在表示少一半时，英语往往习惯用“half as…… as”或“twice less than”来表达，一般不用two times.

【例】The new compressor is half as heavy as the old one.

这部新压缩机比旧的轻一半。

专业英语中，减少一半还有以下表达法：

to decrease one-half; to reduce by one-half; to cut in half; to shorten twice; one-half less 等等。

【例】Reducing the data rate by one-half will double the duration of each symbol interval. 把数据传输速度减少一半，将会使每一符号间隔时间延长一倍。

（三）不确定数量

英语中常用量修饰不确定数量的词有：circa（拉丁语），about, around, some, nearly, roughly, approximately, or so, more or less, in the vicinity of, in the neighborhood of, a matter of, of the order of等。这些词可译成“大约…”、“接近…”、“…上下”、“…左右”等。

【例】a weight around 12 tons 12吨左右的重量

300km or so 大约300公里

a force of the order of 100kN 约为100千牛的力

另外，还有一些表示不确定数量量级的词组，如：

teens of … 十几（13-19）

tens of … 几十

decades of … 几十

dozens of … 几打

scores of … 几十（多于40）

hundreds of … 几百

thousands of … 几千

自动化专业英语课文重点句子翻译(精)

In the case of a resistor, the voltage-current relationship is given by Ohm’s law, which states that the voltage across the resistor is equal to the current through the resistor multiplied by the value of the resistance. 就电阻来说, 电压—电流的关系由欧姆定律决定。欧姆定律指出:电阻两端的 电压等于电阻上流过的电流乘以电阻值。 2]It may be that the inductor voltage rather than the current is the variable of interest in the circuit. 或许在电路中,人们感兴趣的变量是电感电压而不是电感电流。 Viewed in this light, it will be found that the analysis of three-phase circuits is little more difficult than that of single-phase circuits. 这样看来,三相电路的分析比单相电路的分析难不了多少。 At unity power factor, the power in a single-phase circuit is zero twice each cycle. 在功率因数为 1时,单相电路里的功率值每个周波有两次为零。 It should be noted that if the polarity of point Awith respect to N ( is assumed for the positive half-cycle, then when used in the same phasor diagram should be drawn opposite to, or 180? out of phase with, . 应该注意,如果把 A 点相对于 N 的极性(定为正半周,那么在用于同一相量图中时就应该画得同相反,即相位差为 180? One problem with electronic devices corresponding to the generalized amplifiers is that the gains, AU or AI, depend upon internal properties of the two-port system. 对应于像广义放大器这样的电子装置,一个问题就是增益 AU 或者 AI ,它们取决于两输入端系统的内部特性。

(完整版)医学专业英语翻译及答案

Chapter 1 Passage 1 Human Body In this passage you will learn: 1. Classification of organ systems 2. Structure and function of each organ system 3. Associated medical terms To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc. 了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。 Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article. 解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。 The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube - shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made. 骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。 A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow - or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints. 关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动，如肘关节；或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动（如肩关节、髋关节）即成为可能。 Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective, cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant grows into an adult. 软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、

财务管理专业英语 句子及单词翻译

Financial management is an integrated decision-making process concerned with acquiring, financing, and managing assets to accomplish some overall goal within a business entity. 财务管理是为了实现一个公司总体目标而进行的涉及到获取、融资和资产管理的综合决策过程。 Decisions involving a firm’s short-term assets and liabilities refer to working capital management. 决断涉及一个公司的短期的资产和负债提到营运资金管理 The firm’s long-term financing decisions concern the right-hand side of the balance sheet. 该公司的长期融资决断股份资产负债表的右边。 This is an important decision as the legal structure affects the financial risk faced by the owners of the company. 这是一个重要的决定作为法律结构影响金融风险面对附近的的业主的公司。 The board includes some members of top management(executive directors), but should also include individuals from outside the company(non-executive directors). 董事会包括有些隶属于高层管理人员(执行董事)，但将也包括个体从外公司(非执行董事)。 Maximization of shareholder wealth focuses only on stockholders whereas maximization of firm value encompasses all financial claimholders including common stockholders, debt holders, and preferred stockholders. 股东财富最大化只集中于股东，而企业价值最大化包含所有的财务债券持有者，包括普通股股东，债权人和优先股股东。 Given these assumptions，shareholders’ wealth maximization is consistent with the best interests of stakeholders and society in the long run。 根据这些假设，从长期来看，股东财富最大化与利益相关者和社会的最好利润是相一致的。 No competing measure that can provide as comprehensive a measure of a firm’s standi ng. Given these assumptions, shareholders’ wealth maximization is consistent with the best interests of stakeholders and society in the long run. 没有竞争措施，能提供由于全面的一个措施的一个公司的站。给这些臆说，股东'财富最大化一贯不比任何人差项目干系人项目利益相关者的利益，社会从长远说来。 In reality, managers may ignore the interests of shareholders, and choose instead to make investment and financing decisions that benefit themselves. 在现实中，经理可能忽视股东的利益，而是选择利于自身的投资和融资决策。 Financial statements are probably the important source of information from which these various stakeholders(other than management) can assess a firm’s financial health. 财务报表可能是最重要的信息来源，除管理者以外的各种利益相关者可以利用这些报表来评估一个公司的财务状况。 The stockholders’ equity section lists preferred stock, common stock and capital surplus and accumulated retained earnings. 股东权益列示有优先股，普通股，资本盈余和累积留存收益。 The assets, which are the “things” the company owns, are listed in the order of decreasing liquidity, or length of time it typically takes to convert them to cash at fair market values, beginning with the firm’s current assets. 资产，也就是公司拥有的东西，是按照流动性递减的顺序或将它们转换为公允市场价值所需要的时间来排列的，通常从流动资产开始。The market value of a firm’s equity is equal to the number of shares of common stock outstanding times the price per share, while the amoun t reported on the firm’s balance sheet is basically the cumulative amount the firm raised when issuing common stock and any reinvested net income(retained earnings). 公司权益的市场价值等于其发行在外的普通股份数乘以每股价格，而资产负债表上的总额则主要是公司在发行普通股以及分配任何再投资净收益（留存收益）时累积的数额。 When compared to accelerated methods, straight-line depreciation has lower depreciation expense in the early years of asset life, which tends to a higher tax expense but higher net income. 与加速折旧法相比,直线折旧法在资产使用年限的早期折旧费用较低，这也会趋向于较高的税金费用和较高的净收入。 The statement of cash flows consists of three sections:(1)operating cash flows,(2)investing cash flows, and(3)financing cash flows. Activities in each area that bring in cash represent sources of cash while activities that involve spending cash are uses of cash. 该声明现金流量表包含三个部分:(1)经营现金流,(2)投资的现金流,(3)融资现金流。在每个地区活动带来现金来源的现金而代表活动涉及到花钱是使用现金 Financing activities include new debt issuances, debt repayments or retirements, stock sales and repurchases, and cash dividend payments. 筹资活动,包括发行新债券，偿还债务，股票销售和回购，以及现金股利支付。 Not surprisingly, Enron’s executives had realized some $750 million in salaries, bonuses and profits from stock options in the 12 months before the company went bankrupt. 毫不奇怪, 公司破产前的十二个月里，安然的高管们实现了7.5亿美金的工资、奖金和股票期权利润。First, financial ratios are not standardized. A perusal of the many financial textbooks and other sources that are available will often show differences in how to calculate some ratios. 首先,财务比率不规范。一个参考的许多金融教科书及来源,可将经常表现出差异如何计算一些率。 Liquidity ratios indicate a firm’s ability to pay its obligations in the short run. 流动性比率表明公司的支付能力在短期内它的义务。 Excessively high current ratios, however, may indicate a firm may have too much of its long-term investor-supplied capital invested in short-term low-earning current assets. 当前的比率过高,然而,可能表明,一个公司可能有太多的长期 investor-supplied资本投资于短期low-earning流动资产 In an inflationary environment, firms that use last-in, first-out(LIFO)inventory valuation will likely have lower current ratios than firms that use first-in, first-out(FIFO). 在一个通货膨胀的环境下,企业选择使用后进先出法对存货计价的公 司比采用先进先出法的公司有一个低的流动比率。 The cash ratio is too conservative to accurately reflect a firm’s liquidity position because it assumes that firms can fund their current liabilities with only cash and marketable securities. 流动比率太稳健不能正确反映一个公司的流动性状况，因为在这一比率假定公司仅仅用现金和有价证券就可以偿还流动负债。 Debt management ratios characterize a firm in terms of the relative mix of debt and equity financing and provide measures of the long-term debt paying ability of the firm. 描述一个公司债务管理比率从相对的混合的债务和股权融资的措施, 提供长期偿债能力的公司。 Total capital includes all non-current liabilities plus equity, and thus excludes short-term debt. 资本总额包括所有非流动负债加上股本,从而排除短期贷款。 Net profit margins vary widely by the type of industry. 有着很大的不同,其净利润为典型的产业。 Note that earnings before interest and taxes, rather than net income, Is used in the numerator because interest is paid with pre-tax dollars, and the firm’s ability to pay current interest is not affected by taxes. 注意,分子中用的是息税前利润而不是净收入，这是因为利息是税前支付的，公司支付现金利息的能力不受税收的影响。 Managers should analyze the tradeoff between any increased sales from a more lenient credit policy and the associated costs of longer collection periods and more uncollected receivables to determine whether changing the firm’s credit sales policy could increase shareholder’s we alth. 管理者应该分析权衡增加的销售从一个更为宽松的信贷政策和相关费用较长的周期和更多的应收账款收集来决定是否改变公司的信用销售的政策可能会增加股东的财富。 If the receivables collection period exceeds a firm’s credit terms this may indicate that a firm is ineffective in collecting its credit sales or is granting credit to marginal customers. 如果应收账款采集时间超过公司的信用条款这也许说明了企业信用销售收集它无效或给予客户信用边缘。 A low, declining ratio may suggest the firm has continued to build up inventory in the face of weakening demand or may be carrying and reporting outdated or obsolete inventory that could only be sold at reduced prices, if at all. 一个低税率、下降率可能显示这个公司已经持续不断地加强库存面对需求不断减弱或可能携带和报告过期或过时的库存,只能减价出售。Thus, the operating profit margin, which indicates the operating profit generated per dollar of net sales, measures t he firm’s operating profitability before financing costs. 因此,经营利润,预示着美元营业利润产生的净销售额,公司的经营利润措施在融资成本。 If the firm’s fixed assets are old and have been depreciated to a low book value, and the assets have not lost their productive ability, the low figure in the denominator will inflate ROA. 如果公司固定资产比较旧,分母的减少会是ROA折旧到低的账面价值，但是资产并没有失去生产能力。 Return on common equity(ROCE) focuses on just the return to common shareholders and is computed by removing the dividends to preferred shareholders from net income and dividing by the capital provided by common shareholders. 普通股权益报酬率仅仅关注普通股股东的报酬率，用净收入扣除优先股股利除以普通股股东提供的资本计算得到。 Dividend yield represents parts of a stock’s total return; another part of a st ock’s total return is price appreciation. 代表部分股息率的股票总回报;另一部分是一个股票的总回报价格上涨。 In fact, of all the concepts used in finance, none is more important than the time value of money, also called discounted cash flow(DCF) analysis. 事实上,财务上所有的概念中，货币时间价值是最重要的，也称作是折现调整现金流量折价分析。

专业英语翻译

Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 141 (2011) 133–138 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /v e t i m m Short communication Saccharomyces cerevisiae decreases in?ammatory responses induced by F4+enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in porcine intestinal epithelial cells Galliano Zanello a ,b ,1,Franc ?ois Meurens a ,1,Mustapha Berri a ,Claire Chevaleyre a ,Sandrine Melo a ,Eric Auclair b ,Henri Salmon a ,? a Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA),UR1282,Infectiologie Animale et SantéPublique,F-37380Nouzilly (Tours),Indre et Loire,France b SociétéIndustrielle Lesaffre,Lesaffre Feed Additives,Marcq-en-Baroeul,France a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 19October 2010Received in revised form 13December 2010 Accepted 31January 2011Keywords: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli Pig Intestinal epithelial cells Cytokines Chemokines a b s t r a c t Probiotic yeasts may provide protection against intestinal in?ammation induced by enteric pathogens.In piglets,infection with F4+enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC)leads to in?ammation,diarrhea and intestinal damage.In this study,we investigated whether the yeast strains Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sc ,strain CNCM I-3856)and S.cerevisiae variety boulardii (Sb ,strain CNCM I-3799)decreased the expression of pro-in?ammatory cytokines and chemokines in intestinal epithelial IPI-2I cells cultured with F4+ETEC.Results showed that viable Sc inhibited the ETEC-induced TNF-?gene expression whereas Sb did not.In contrast,killed Sc failed to inhibit the expression of pro-in?ammatory genes.This inhibition was dependent on secreted soluble factors.Sc culture supernatant decreased the TNF-?,IL-1?,IL-6,IL-8,CXCL2and CCL20ETEC-induced mRNA.Furthermore,Sc culture supernatant ?ltrated fraction <10kDa displayed the same effects excepted for TNF-?.Thus,our results extended to Sc (strain CNCM I-3856)the inhibitory effects of some probiotic yeast strains onto in?ammation. ? 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1.Introduction Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC)are pathogenic gram negative bacteria which infect humans and sev-eral species of farm animals such as calves and pigs.ETEC interacts with intestinal epithelial cells,colonizes the small intestine and secretes enterotoxins such as the heat-labile enterotoxins (LT),the heat-stable enterotox-ins (STa and/or STb),and the enteroaggregative E .coli heat-stable enterotoxin 1(EAST1)(Nagy and Fekete,2005).In pigs,ETEC infection and enterotoxin secretions can induce intestinal in?ammation and diarrhea resulting in reduced growth rate,increased mortality and economic ?Corresponding author.Tel.:+33247427331;fax:+33247427779.E-mail addresses:salmon@tours.inra.fr ,henri.salmon@tours.inra.fr (H.Salmon).1 These authors contributed equally to this work.loss (Fairbrother et al.,2005).Moreover,F4+ETEC strain induce pro-in?ammatory response in intestinal epithe-lial cells (Devriendt et al.,2010).Administration of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae variety boulardii (Sb )has been shown to protect pigs in reducing ETEC transloca-tion (Lessard et al.,2009).In vitro studies showed that Sb secretes soluble factors that decrease the expression of pro-in?ammatory cytokines induced by enteric pathogens (Zanello et al.,2009).However,to our knowledge,there is no in vitro data regarding the anti-in?ammatory effects of S.cerevisiae (Sc )secreted soluble factors.Sc and Sb are members of the same species but they differ geneti-cally,metabolically and physiologically (Edwards-Ingram et al.,2007;Hennequin et al.,2001).Thus,in this study,we assessed if the non-commensal and non-pathogenic yeasts Sc (strain CNCM I-3856)and Sb (strain CNCM I-3799)secreted factors allowing the down-regulation of pro-in?ammatory gene expression in intestinal epithe-lial cells cultured with F4+ETEC.Sc (strain CNCM I-3856) 0165-2427/$–see front matter ? 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.vetimm.2011.01.018

英语专业 综合英语翻译句子答案

1.Our big old house was closely related with the joys and sorrows of four generations. 2.I planted these roses a long, long time ago before your mother was born. 3.Many sons left home to fight against the Fascist Nazi. 4.Take the first friendly greeting and always keep it deep in your heart. 1.He has prepared answers to the questions that he expects to confront during the interview. 2.His sad story touched us so deeply that we nearly cried. 3.The two of them are walking hand in hand along the river bank, chatting, laughing, and looking happy. 4.When he heart the exciting news, tears of joy welled up in his eyes. 5.People from Shanghai can understand Suzhou dialect with ease, for Shanghai dialect and Suzhou dialect have much in common. 6.Henry and his wife are looking into the possibility of buying a new house within three years. 7.He finally gave in to his daughter’s repeated requests to further her education abroad. 8.We locked all our valuables away before we went on holiday. 9.Although we have parted from eah other, I hope that we will remain good friends and that we will care for and help each other just as we did in the past. 10.At that critical moment, the army commander summoned all the officers to work out new strategies and tactics which would make it possible to conquer the enemy. Unit 2 1.A gracious manner adds the greatest splendour to your image. 2.I firmly believed the note my guest sent me didn’t take long to write. 3.The simple phrase “Excuse me.” made most of your irritation disappear. 4.Being on time is a virtue which belongs not only to the past but also to the present. 5.Y ou shouldn’t accept the other person’s presence without thinking of its importance. 6.Good manners produce the same feelings or actions in others. 1.I am sorry I am late; I was at a meeting and couldn’t get away. 2.At the concert whnever a singer finished singing a beautiful song, the audience would burst into loud cheers to show their appreciation. 3.As a stylish dresser, she is always wearing stylish clothes, but she seldom cares about what she eats or drinks. 4.The nurse tells me that the doctors have done wonders for your heart disease. 5.When awarding the prize, the chairman complimented the winner on his great contribution to mankind. 6.This problem has bothered the experts for many years. 7.The crowd of demonstrators melted away when the police arrived. 8.Since punctuality is a good habit, we should pay much attention to it and make great efforts to cultivate this good habit. 9.The old man cherishes that girl, as if she were his own daughter. 10.It is just a routine physical checkup, nothing to get worried about.

《自动化专业英语》中英文翻译-中文部分

第二部分 控制理论 第1章 1.1控制系统的引入 人类控制自然力量的设计促进人类历史的发展,我们已经广泛的能利用这种量进行在人类本身力量之外的物理进程?在充满活力的20世纪中,控制系统工程的发展已经使得很多梦想成为了现实?控制系统工程队我们取得的成就贡献巨大?回首过去,控制系统工程主要的贡献在机器人,航天驾驶系统包括成功的实现航天器的软着陆,航空飞机自动驾驶与自动控制,船舶与潜水艇控制系统,水翼船?气垫船?高速铁路自动控制系统,现代铁路控制系统? 以上这些类型的控制控制系统和日常生活联系紧密,控制系统是一系列相关的原件在系统运行的基础上相互关联的构成的,此外控制系统存在无人状态下的运行,如飞机自控驾驶,汽车的巡航控制系统?对于控制系统,特别是工业控制系统,我们通常面对的是一系列的器件,自动控制是一个复合型的学科?控制工程师的工作需要具有力学,电子学,机械电子,流体力学,结构学,无料的各方面的知识?计算机在控制策略的执行中具有广泛的应用,并且控制工程的需求带动了信息技术的与软件工程的发展? 通常控制系统的范畴包括开环控制系统与闭环控制系统,两种系统的区别在于是否在系统中加入了闭环反馈装置? 开环控制系统 开环控制系统控制硬件形式很简单,图2.1描述了一个单容液位控制系统, 图2.1单容液位控制系统 我们的控制目标是保持容器的液位h 在水流出流量V 1变化的情况下保持在一定 可接受的范围内,可以通过调节入口流量V 2实现?这个系统不是精确的系统,本系 统无法精确地检测输出流量V 2,输入流量V 1以及容器液位高度?图2.2描述了这 个系统存在的输入(期望的液位)与输出(实际液位)之间的简单关系, 图2.2液位控制系统框图 这种信号流之间的物理关系的描述称为框图?箭头用来描述输入进入系统,以及