英语翻译课堂笔记

英语翻译B的定语从句一的要点(1)中英文中定语的位置差异

中文定语一般前置，英文中一般后置。

例如：This is a agreement beneficial to all the parties.

这是一份对各方都有利的协议。

（2）英译汉的主要步骤

三步曲：断句、翻译和重读

例如：on the whole/, such a conclusion can be draw/ with a certain degree of

confidence/, but only if the child can be assumed to have had the same attitude

towards the test/ as the others/ with whom he is being compared /and only if he was

punished by lack of relevant information/ which they possessed.

翻译：总体上来说，可以得出这样一种结论，结论的得出需要一定程度的信心，但

是只要假设这个小孩对于测试和其他人一样拥有相同的态度。这个小孩与其他人相

比而言，也只要他没有因为缺少相关信息而受到惩罚，其他小孩拥有。

重读后的翻译：总体上来说，得出这样一种结论需要一定的信心，但是只要这个小

孩对于测试的态度和与之相比较的其他小孩子的态度相同，也只要他没有因为缺少

别的孩子所拥有的相关信息而得到惩罚。

（3）英文中介词翻译成中文的方法

介词译为副词

例如：there is a book on the desk. 桌子上有本书。介词on 译为….上。

介词以为动词

例如：I went to the Paris by plane. 我坐飞机去巴黎。介词by译为动词坐。

（4）中英文句式的差异

中英文句式的第一个差异：中文善于用短句且注重用标点符号；而英文善于用长句，不注重标点符号的使用。

例如：The Greeks assumed that/ the structure of language had some connection with the process of thought,/ which took roots in Europe/ long before people realized how diverse language could be.

希腊人认为，语言的结构和思想之间存在某种联系，而这种观点早在人们认识到语言的多样性之前就已经在欧洲植根了。

或是英文中通常用长句，但是用了很多的逗号。

例如：Aluminum remained unknown until the nineteenth century, because nowhere in nature is it found free, owing to its always being combined with other elements, most commonly with oxygen ,for which it has a strong affinity.

因为通常来说，铝与其他元素相结合，最通常的就是和氧相结合，因为铝和氧有很强的亲和力，所以，在自然界找不到游离态的铝，因此铝直到19世纪才为人类所发现。

中英文句式的第二个差异：

中文的句式结构：先出主语+无关紧要的语句+最重要成分

英文的句式结构：先出主语+最重要成分+无关紧要的语句

例如：the teachers come into the classroom with a book and a dog.

老师带着一本书和一条狗走进了教室。

（5）定语从句的译法

定语从句有三种译法：前置、后置和句首。

句首的译法

例如：中国作为一个发展中的大国高度重视中美两国之间的友谊。

As a major developing country, China attaches great importance to the bilateral relations between China and America.

（6）循环套用定语从句的翻译方法

Behaviorists suggests/ that the Child/ who is raised in an environment/ where there are many stimuli/ which develop his or her capacity for appropriate response/ will experience intellectual development.

主语+v.+宾语从句（无虚拟语气）：认为

Noun.+attributive1+attributive2+attributive3

1+2=3

1=2+3

1=2=3

2=1+3

行为主义者认为，小孩生长在有很多刺激的环境，而这些刺激又促进了其适当的反应能力的发展，那么小孩就会有更大的知识发展。

英语翻译B的定语从句二的要点一．定语从句中的外位语、本位词如何翻译,定语从句的并列套用如何翻译

This assumption rests on the fallacy /of the inherent laziness in human nature, actually /aside from abnormally lazy people, /there would be very few/ who would not want to earn more than the minimum, /and who would prefer to do nothing rather than work.

译：假设是基于这样一种谬论，人性中天生的懒惰。实际上，除了特别懒惰的人以外，没有多少人愿意赚只比最低生活费多的钱。也很少有人愿意无所事事而不去工作。

1）“这样”是中文中的本位词。“懒惰”在中文中是一种抽象名词。本位词所代替的部分称为外位语。因此“the inherent laziness in human nature”即“人性中天生的懒惰”

是“这样”的外位语。

2）there would be very few who would not want to earn more than the minimum, and who would prefer to do nothing rather than work.

这是并列套用定语从句，翻译为“没有多少人愿意赚只比最低生活费多的钱。也很少有人愿意无所事事而不去工作。”“and”以为“也”，主语相同，都译为“很少有人”。

二．英文中几种not的译法

1）There are very few people who would not like to do it.

译：没有多少人愿意做这件事。此处的”not”修饰“few”.

2）I did not attend the meeting because I wanted to do.

译：我参加了会议并不是我想去。此处否定前移了。（”not”前移）

三．中英文定语从句的差异

第二大差异：英文中先说评论再事实，中文中先事实，后评论。

例如：The number of the young people in the Untied States who can’t read is incredible about one in four.

译：在美国没有阅读能力的年轻人的数量大约有四分之一，这令人难以置信。

第三大差异：中文是动态性语言，善于用动词；英文是静态性语言，善于用名词。

例如：Economically, we will speed up the establishment of socialist market economy.

在经济上，我们要加快建立社会主义市场经济。

中文中“建立”是动词，英文中用名词“establishment”表达动词的意思。

四．定语从句中谓语动词的过渡

Television,/ it is often said, /keeps one informed about current evens,/ allowing one to follow the latest development in science and politics and offers an endless series of programs /which are both instructive and entertaining.

译：人们常说，通过电视可以了解到当前的时事，可以掌握科学和政治的最新发展，电视还提供了层出不穷的既有教育意义又有娱乐性的节目。

“keeps”为弱动词，需与” informed”搭配使用表示“了解”这个动作。这是因为谓语动词的过渡。“informed”这个动词过渡为形容词。

例如：I give you my support.

我支持你。“give”为弱动词，与“support”搭配表示“支持”这个动作。

五．几种特殊句子的翻译

It is said. 据说it is often said 人们常说

It is believed人们相信It is guessed 人们猜测

It is reported 据报道

六．英文中四种句子的翻译方法

1）长句，很少逗号

2）长句，有很多逗号

3）短句

4）长句，有逗号，但是有大量的生词。

With the conclusion of a burst activity,/ the lactic acid level is high in the body fluids,/ leaving the large animal vulnerable to attack /until the acid is reconverted, /via oxidative metabolism, /by the liver into glucose, /which is then sent (in part) back to the muscles for glycogen.

译：随着剧烈运动的结束，体液中的乳酸升高，使大型动物处于容易受到攻击的状态，直到乳酸经过有氧的新陈代谢，由肝脏重新转换为葡萄糖，而葡萄糖接下来又部分地返回到肌肉中形成糖原。

“which”非限制性定语从句的关键词所代表的意思要译出，译为“葡萄糖”。

七．英文中插入语的译法，中文中的关联词要成对出现

在翻译时，当插入语不表示观点时，插入语以破折号形式来表现，表示观点时，放在句首。例如：Although Gutman admits that/ forced separation by sale was frequent,/ he shows that the slaves’preference,/ revealed most clearly on plantations/ where sale was infrequent,/ was very much for stable monogamy.

译：尽管古特曼认为，由于买卖而造成的被迫分离甚为频繁，但是他认为奴隶们的偏好——在买卖不是很频繁的种植园中最为明显的揭示出来——很大程度上倾向于稳定的一夫一妻制。

“revealed most clearly on plantations/ where sale was infrequent”是插入语，但不表示观点，因此用破折号的形式来表现。

“Although”译为“尽管”，是中文中的关联词，要成对出现，因此，翻译中出现了“尽管”“但是”这一对关联词。

八．人名、地名如何翻译

地名的译法：

West Africa 西非（行政区分的地名）West Beijing 西北京

Western Beijing 北京的西部（在北京区域内）The west of Beijing 北京的西边（不在北京区域内）

人名的译法：遵守形似这一原则。

Gutman 古特曼White 怀特Watt 瓦特Walt 沃尔特Wright 莱特例如：This preference for exogamy,/ Gutman suggests,/ may have derived from West African rules/ governing marriage,/ which,/ though they differed from one tribal group to another,/ all involved some kind of prohibition against unions with close kin.

译：古特曼认为，这种对于外族通婚的偏好可能起源于西非制约着婚姻的风俗，这些风俗尽管在一个部落和另一个部落之间不尽相同，但是，这一切都涉及某些对于近亲结婚的反对。

“Gutman suggests”插入语，表观点，翻译时放在句首。“which”是外位语“这些风俗”的本位词，翻译时译成外位语部分。

英语翻译B的非谓语动词的要点

课堂笔记要点如下：

分词的翻译注意位置

“威妥玛式”标音法

中英文数词的翻译

翻译中的“一个原则”和同位定语从句

非谓语动词：不定式、分词、动名词

一，非谓语动词和翻译的关系

非谓语动词在中文中翻译为动词。

例：he sat there reading a book. 他坐在那里读一本书。

非谓语动词“reading”译为“读”。

二，非谓语动词的翻译

Even when we turn off the beside lamp/ and are fast asleep, /electricity is working for us,

/driving our refrigerators,/ heating our water, /or keeping our rooms air-conditioned.

译：我们即使关掉了床头灯，深深地进入了梦乡时，电仍在为我们工作，使我们的冰箱运行，把水加热，或者让我们的室内空调运转。

非谓语动词“driving”“heating”“keeping”都译为动词，分别译为“运行”“加热”“运转”。

三，分词的翻译

1，分词为句首，表示状语，先找出其主语。当地点状语和时间状语在一起时，先译出时间状语从句，再译出地点状语从句。

例：Taking the rain, the two friends arrived Berlin in late October 1922,/and went directly to the address of Chow En-lai.

译：两个朋友坐火车于1922年10月底到柏林，并立即去了周恩来的住处。

“Taking the rain”分词为句首，表示状语，其主语为“the two friends”。

“Berlin in late October 1922”地点状语和时间状语在一起，所以译为“于1922年10月底到柏林”。

“Chow En-lai.”是“威妥玛式”标音法。

四，中英文数词的翻译

例：The farmer of 1800,using a hand sickle, could hope to cut a fifth of hectare of wheat a day. 译：1800年，一个农民，使用镰刀，在一天内可望收割五分之一公顷小麦。

“using a hand sickle,”非限制定语从句，翻译为中文时用逗号隔开，用后置定语从句译法。中英文数词的翻译原则：

阿拉伯数字翻译是不变，英文—中文中文—英文。

所以，“1800”译为“1800”，“fifth”译为五分之一。

五，翻译中的“一个原则”和同位定语从句

翻译中的“一个原则”：主谓结构—偏正结构

例：When Chow En-lai’s door opened/ they saw a slender man/ of more than average height/ with gleaming eyes and a face so striking that it bordered on the beautiful.

译：周恩来的房门打开时，他们看到的是一个清瘦，比普通人略高一点的人，双目炯炯有神，面貌很引人注意，称得上清秀。

“with gleaming eyes”偏正结构，翻译时译为主谓结构，因此译为“双目炯炯有神”。

例：We have gone a longer distance than the Long March.

译：我们所走过的路比长征（走过的路程）还要长。

“We have gone a longer distance than the Long March.”主谓结构译为偏正结构。

例：More people are seeing and hearing what we say here on any other such occasion in the whole history of the world.

译：正在看着和听着我们所说的人比整个世界历史上任何其他这样场合的人还要多。“More people are seeing and hearing what we say here”主谓结构，译为偏正结构，译为“正

在看着和听着我们所说的人”。

六．同位语定语从句的译法

同位语定语从句：同位语后有一个定语从句。

同位语定语从句有2种译法：一种是顶真，另一种是主谓结构译法。

顶真译法的例子如下：

He is a man, a man who is handsome.

译：他是一个男的，这个男的很帅。

主谓结构的译法例子如下：

例：Beijing, the capital of China, is a very beautiful city.

译：北京是中国的首都，它是一个非常漂亮的城市。

But /achieving necessary matches/ in physical properties /across interfaces/ between living and nonliving matter/ requires/ knowledge/ of which molecules control the bonding of cells to each other/ —an area/ that we have not yet explored thoroughly.

译：但是，要想沿着原生和非原生物质之间的界面获取生理特性的必要匹配，这需要某种知识，即什么样的分子控制着细胞彼此间的结合——面对这一领域，我们尚未进行充分的探索。“an area that we have not yet explored thoroughly.”同位语定语从句，用顶真的译法。

英语翻译B被动语态翻译一的笔记要点一，英文中的被动语态的翻译

英文中的被动语态的翻译有4种方法：

（1）被动换主动

例：The classroom was cleaned by the students.

译：学生打扫了教室。

The spare parts can be produced in the short period of time.

译：短时间之内可以生产出这些部件。

（2）找被动的替代词(这些被动句也称为隐形被动句。)

例：The enemies were attacked by us.

译：敌人受到了我们的攻击。

The old lady was killed by the young man.

译：这个老奶奶为这个年轻人所杀。

Vegetable oil has been known from antiquity.

译：蔬菜油从古代就为人们所熟悉了了。

The playground was cleaned by three students.

译：这个操场是由三个学生打扫的。

1998年是联合国确定的国际海洋年。

译：1998 was designated by the United Nations as the International Ocean year.

（3）被动在科学论文中一般翻译为可以。

例：The oil is used as perfume.

译：油可以作为香水使用。

This computer is treated as human’s friend.

译：电脑可以作为人类的朋友对待。

例：Because it is very slippery, it is used for lubrication.

译：因为它非常润滑，它被用来作为润滑。

（4）利用中文特征，有被动语态，而翻译时不用被字。

例：When the whale is killed, it can be stripped out on the shore.

译：鲸鱼杀死后，就在岸上扒皮了。

二，偏正结构互换

例：Today/ this treasury of silt is trapped behind the dam,/ and there is no effective system.

译：现在，宝贵的泥沙却让水坝给拦住了，也就没有有效的系统了。

“this treasury of silt”为偏正结构，因此为了翻译更通顺，偏正互换，译为“宝贵的泥沙”。Today’s Europeans

European’s today 现今的欧洲人（偏正结构）

例：Yet/ the Nile has been changed by modern man/ in ways/ not yet fully understood.

译：然而，现代人却让尼罗河发生了变化，不过就连他们自己也不完全了解尼罗河发生了什么变化。

三，段落和文章翻译的基本思路

When the crude oil is obtained from the field, it is taken to the refinery to be treated. The commonest form of treatment is heating. When the oil is heating, the first vapors to rise are cooled and become the finest petrol. Petrol has a low boiling point; if a little is poured into the hand, it soon vaporized. Gas that comes off the oil later is condensed into paraffin. Last of all the lubricating oils of various grades are produced. What remains is heavy oil that is used as fuel.

译：当原油被从田地里实现的时候，它就被送到炼油厂去被提炼。最常见的提炼方式就是加热。当油加热的时候，最先升起的蒸汽被冷却，并且变成了最好的汽油。汽油有很低的沸点。如果一点被倒在手上，它就蒸发了。后来从石油里面出来的气体就被浓缩为煤油。最后，各种等级的润滑油就被生产出来了。剩下来的就是重油，被当作燃料。

Exercise:

Mr. Primer Minister, I wish to thank you very gracious and eloquent remarks. At the very moment through the wonder of telecommunication, more people are seeing and hearing what we say than on any other such occasion in the whole history of the world. Yet, what we say here will not be long remembered. What we do here can change the world.

As you said in your toast, the Chinese people is a great people, the American people is a great people. If our two people are enemies in the future of this world we share together is dark indeed. But if we can find common ground to work together, the chance for world peace is

immeasurably increased.

In the spirit of frankness which I hope will characterize our talks this week, let us recognize at the outset these points: we have at times in the past been enemies. We have differences today. What brings us together is that we have common interests which transcend those differences. As we discuss our differences, neither of us will compromise our principles. But while we cannot close the gulf between us, we can try to bridge it so that we may be able to talk across it.

So, let us, in these next five days, start a long march together, not in lockstep, but on different roads leading to the same goal, the goal of building a world structure of peace and justice in which all may stand together with equal dignity and in which each nation, large or small, has a right to determine its own form of government, free of outside interference or domination. The world watches. The world listens. The world waits to see what we will do. What is the world? In a personal sense, I think of the eldest daughter whose birthday is today. As I think of her, I think all the children in the world, in Asia, in Africa, in Europe, in the Americas, most of whom were born since the date of the foundation the People’s Republic of China.

译：普瑞姆.密斯特先生，我非常感谢你们优雅而又流利的讲话。在那一刻通过奇妙的电子交流,正在看到和听到我们说的话比在整个世界历史上的任何其他这样的场合的人都多。然而,我们在这里讲的话,人们不会长久记住。我们在这里所做的却可以改变世界。

正如您在祝酒词里讲的,中国人民是伟大的人民,美国人民也是伟大的人民。如果我们两国成为了敌人，那么我们的未来世界一定是漆黑一片。但是如果我们能够找到共同点并且互相合作,那么实现世界和平的可能是无限地扩大了。

我认为，坦诚的精神描述我们本周的谈话,在开始，让我们认识到这些点:在过去的一段时期，我们是敌人。今天我们仍有分歧。然而，使我们走到一起的是我们有超越这些分歧的共同利益。当我们讨论我们的分歧,我们都没有放弃我们的原则。虽然当我们不能关闭我们之间的鸿沟,但是我们可以尝试建造桥而这样我们可以穿过它。

所以,让我们,在未来五天里,开始一起前行,虽然不同步，但是通过不同道路达到相同的目标，目的是建立一个和平和正义的世界体系,无论国家的大小，所有的国家都可以以同样的尊严站在一起，都有权决定自己的政府形式,远离外界干扰或统治。世界人民在看，在听。全世界在等待着看我们将做些什么。这个世界是什么呢? 在个人的意义中,我想到的是今天过生日的大女儿。当我想到她的时候,我也会想到世界上所有的孩子,在亚洲,在非洲,欧洲,美洲的孩子,在中华人民共和国成立的那天出生的孩子。

英语翻译B被动语态翻译二的笔记要点

动词的分配原则

中英文的总分关系

一，中英文的总分关系

中文是先分后总，英文是先总后分

例：The Chinese athletes won gold medals in these events, such as diving, table tennis, badminton.

译：中国运动员在跳水，乒乓球，羽毛球项目上获得了金牌。

“such as diving, table tennis, badminton”为分，“The Chinese athletes won gold medals in these events”为总。

二，动词的分配原则

A*(B+C+D)=A*B+A*C+A*D;

例：He wears a coat, a hat and a scarf.

译：他穿着一件上衣，戴着一顶帽子，系着一条围巾。

三，同位语的翻译

例如：It is not known how rare this resemblance is, or whether it is most often seen in inclusions of silicates such as garnet, whose crystallography is generally somewhat similar to that of diamond; but when present, the resemblance is regarded as compelling evidence that the diamonds and inclusions are truly to co genetic.

译：现在尚不知道，这种类似稀少到何种程度，也不知道是否它常见于像石榴石一样的硅酸岩的内含物中，这类物质的晶体结构普遍地在某种程度尚类似于金刚石的晶体结构，但是，一旦存在，这种类似就可以视作极有力的证据。金刚石与内含物确是同源的。

“the diamonds and inclusions are truly to co genetic.”是“evidence”的同位语从句。“whose”是“garnet”的同位语。

It is not known that…译为：现在尚不知道

How rare this resemblance is “how”修饰“rare”，译为：这种相似是多么的稀少。

例：On behalf of all your American guests, I wish to thank you for the incomparable hospitality for which the Chinese people are justly famous throughout the world.

译：我代表所有的美国客人向你们表示感谢，感谢你们无可比拟的盛情款待，中国人民一向以此闻名于世。

例如：A long-held view of the history of English colonies/ that became the United States /has been that/ England’s policy toward these colonies before 1763 was dictated by commercial interests and that a change to a more imperial policy,/ dominated by expansionist objectives, /generated the tensions that ultimately led to the American Revolution.

译：长久以来，有这样一种关于英国殖民地历史的观点，这块殖民地后来变成了美国，这种观点认为英国在1763年以前对于这些殖民地的政策为经济利益所支配，而且认为一种向着更大程度帝国制度的政策的转变——为扩张主义的军事目标所左右——产生了最终美国革命的紧张气氛。

“dominated by expansionist objectives”为插入语，不表示观点，以破折号的形式表示。四，“抽象名词”的翻译方法

抽象名词翻译为动词。

例：More probable is transported by birds, either externally, by accidental attachment of the seeds to feathers, or internally, by the swallowing of fruit and subsequent excretion of the seeds.译：更有可能的是由鸟类运输：要么是通过外部途径，即由于种子偶然黏附在羽毛上；要么是通过内部方式，即由于鸟类吞食果子并随后将种子排泄出来。

“More probable is transported by birds”隐形被动，用替代词“是由….”。

“attachment”“swallowing”“excretion”这些抽象名词都译为了动词。分别译为“粘附”“吸食”“排泄”。

Exercise：

President Bush is making a noble effort to pull together the fraying alliance/, but the fact is/ that Europeans and Americans no longer share a common view of the world. /On the all-important question of power—the utility of power,/ the morality of power—they have parted ways. /Europeans believe /that they are moving beyond power into a self-contained world of laws and rules and transnational negotiation and cooperation/. Europe itself has entered a post-historical paradise,/ the realization of Immanuel Kant’s “Perpetual Peace”. /The United States,/ meanwhile, /remains mired in history, exercising power in the anarchic Hobbesian World /where the international rules are unreliable /and where security and promotion of a liberal order still depend on the possession /and use of military might. /This is why on major strategic and

international questions today, /Americans are from Mars and Europeans are from Venus/: They agreed on little and understood one another less and less./

Why the divergent perspectives? They are not deeply rooted in national characters. Two centuries ago American statesmen appealed to international law and disdained “power politics”, while European statesmen spoke of raison d’est. Europeans marched off to World War I believing in power and martial glory, while Americans talked of arbitration treaties, now the nobles have reversed.

译：布什总统正在非常努力且齐心协力地建立一个吵架联盟,但是事实是欧洲人和美国人不再有一个相同的世界观。在至关重要的问题——力量的使用，权力的道德——他们已经分道扬镳。欧洲人相信他们超越权力，这种观念变成一个独立的世界的法律法规和跨国协商与合作的规则。欧洲本身已经进入了一个论天堂,实现伊曼努尔·康德所说的“永久和平”。然而，美国仍陷于历史,在无政府的霍布斯世界行使权力，在这样的世界里，国际规则是不可靠的，并且，安全与推广一个自由主义秩序仍依赖于占有和使用军事力量。这就是为什么在当今的重大战略与国际问题上,美国人像来自火星,欧洲人来自金星:他们同意和理解对方的时候已经越来越少。

为什么有不同的观点? 因为他们不是深深扎根于国家的形象。两个世纪前的美国政治家呼吁国际法律和蔑视“强权政治”,而欧洲政治家谈到这raison d’est。欧洲人在第一次世界大战时相信军事力量和荣耀,而美国人谈到仲裁条约,而且现在的贵族已经逆转。

英语翻译B“中间语言”的翻译方法1，英译汉时，多用名词，或者省略；汉译英时，多用代词。

代词的翻译：（1）代词要指明要点；（2）代词的翻译要不抽象，不具体。

例：It may seem strange to put an industrial revolution and two political revolution into the same packet, but the fact is that they were all social revolution.

译：把一场工业革命和两场政治革命归为一类，这似乎是有点奇怪，但是，事实上，这三场革命都是社会革命。

“they”为代词，代表一场工业革命和两场政治革命，遵从代词的翻译原则，所以译为“这三场革命”。

“that they were all social revolution.”为表语从句。

“the fact is that”引导表语从句时，译为“事实上”，且用逗号隔开，当插入语使用；当引导同为语从句时，处理为评论环节，先事实，后评论。

例：The fact that he had stolen some important files was true.

译：他偷了一些重要文件是真的。

此处的“the fact that”引导同位语从句。

例：Two thing are outstanding in the creation of the English system of canals, and they characterize all Industrial.

译：这两点在修建英国运河网络系统中的过程是非常突出的，而这两点也正是整个产业革命的特点。

“they”代词，译为“这两点”。“creation”抽象名词，译为动词“修建”。“characterize”译为：正是……的特点。

例如：This island is characterized by the rice.

译：这个岛屿盛产大米。

例：In the spirit of frankness which I hope will characterize our talks this week.

译：我希望我们这周的谈话是坦诚相待的。

例：The canals were arteries of communications, they were not made to carry pleasure boats ,

but barges.

译：运河是运输的动脉，而开凿运河不是用来运输娱乐的船只，而是用来运输驳船的。“they”代词，译为“开凿运河”。

2，“中间语言”的翻译方法

“中间语言”不译。

例：James Brindley was a pioneer in the building of canals or, as it was then called “navigation”. 译：詹姆士卜德利是修建运河的先驱者，人们当时开凿运河叫做“navigation”。“navigation”为中间语言，不译。“as it was then called”人们当时把……称作……。

例：We refer to libro as books in Spanish.

译：我们把西班牙语中的“libro”称为书。

“libro”为中间语言，不译。

3，英文中形容词和副词的翻译