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Unit 10 Student Motivation To Learn.

学生学习动机

Motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire, or want ) that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction . Student motivation has to do with students’ des ire to participate in the learning process. What factors influence the development of students’ motivation? How can motivation to learn be fostered? The article gives the explanations.

动机是一种激励或者刺激人们行为并指引行为方向的内部状态或状况（有时也是一种需要，渴望，或者意愿）。学生的学习动机必须和他们参与学习过程的意愿联系在一起。哪些因素会影响学生学习动机的养成呢？怎样才能培养学习动机呢？这篇文章给出了详细的说明。

Infants and young children appear to be propelled by curiosity, driven by an intense need to explore, interact with, and make sense of their environment. As one author puts it, "Rarely does one hear parents complain that their pre-schooler is 'unmotivated' " (James Raffini 1993).

不管是婴儿还是小孩，他们看起来都会受好奇心的推动，受探索自然，融入并探索自然的强烈需要的驱使。象一个作家所提的，“没有谁听家长说他们的小孩在学前是不积极的。

Unfortunately, as children grow, their passion for learning frequently seems to shrink. Learning often becomes associated with drudgery instead of delight. A large number of students--more than one in four--leave school before graduating. Many more are physically present in the classroom but largely mentally absent; they fail to invest themselves fully in the experience of learning.

不幸的是，随着孩子的成长，他们学习的热情降低了。学习经常变成了一件苦差事而并非乐事。有超过1/4的大量学生辍学。而更多的是身在曹营，心在汉；他们根本不能全身心地投入学习。

Awareness of how students' attitudes and beliefs about learning develop and what facilitates learning for its own sake can assist educators in reducing student apathy.

了解学生关于学习发展的态度和信念，及凭自学兴趣的情况，这将帮助教育工作者降低学生学习的冷漠态度。

What is student motivation?

什么是学生的动机？

Student motivation naturally has to do with st udents' desire to participate in the learning process. But it also concerns the reasons or goals that und erlie their involvement or noninvolvement in academic activities. Although students may be equally motivated to perform a task, the sources of their motivation may differ.

学生学习的动机通常与学生在学习的过程中参与学习意愿有关。但也与他们参与或不参与学习活动的原因和目标有关。即使学生们可能受驱使去干某事，但是他们学习的动机是不同的。

A student who is INTRINSICALLY motivated undertakes an activity "for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes" (Mark Lepper 1988). An EXTRINSICALLY motivated student performs "IN ORDER TO obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself," such as grades, stickers, or teacher approval (Lepper).

一个具有内在动机的学生，他从事活动是为了活动本身，为了活动过程中的乐趣，为了能从中学到什么，或是为了活动所引发的优越感。而处于一个处于外在动因的学生，“他往往是为了得到某种奖赏，或是避免一些外在惩罚。”诸如成绩、难题和老师的认可。

The term MOTIVATION TO LEARN has a slightly different meaning. It is defined by one author as "the meaningfulness, value, and benefits of academic tasks to the learner--regardless of whether or not they are intrinsically interesting" (Hermine Marshall 1987). Another notes that motivation to learn is characterized by long-term, quality involvement in learning and commitment to the process of learning (Carole Ames 1990).

学习动机这个词的意义稍有差别。有位作家做了这样的定义，学习动因就是学术活动对于学习者产生的意义、价值和利益，不管学生是否发自内心的兴趣。而另外的则认为，学习动机的特点是长期的，积极地投入学习和到付诸学习过程中去。

What factors influence the development of students’ motivation?

影响学生动机发展的因素有哪些？

According to Jere Brophy (1987), motivation to learn is a competence acquired "through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers)."

根据Jere的观点，学习动机是一种能力，主要是从实践中获得。但是，大多数是从直接受到表扬、愿望交流和直接说明或是被其他有影响的人激发出来的。

Children's home environment shapes the initial constellation of attitudes they develop toward learning. When parents nurture their children's natural curiosity about the world by welcoming their questions, encouraging exploration, and familiarizing them with resources that can enlarge their world, they are giving their children the message that learning is worthwhile and frequently fun and satisfying.

孩子的家庭环境是塑造他们学习态度的第一个地方。当父母通过欢迎问题，鼓励探索和熟悉那些能够扩大他们视野的知识的方式来养育他们的孩子对于这个世界的好奇心。他们告诉孩子，学习是有意义的、充满乐趣的，能得到满足的事情。

When children are raised in a home that nurtures a sense of self-worth, competence, autonomy, and self-efficacy, they will be more apt to accept the risks inherent in learning. Conversely, when children do not view themselves as basically competent and able, their freedom to engage in academically challenging pursuits and capacity to tolerate and cope with failure are greatly diminished.

如果孩子所处的家庭能培育他形成自身价值、能力、自律和自我评价，那么他们就会容易接受学习中挑战，相反，当孩子做了，而没有看到他们自己能力，他们将怠慢他们在学业上的动力，这样他们在处理困难与失败的能力将会大大降低。

Once children start school, they begin forming beliefs about their school-related successes and failures. The sources to which children attribute their successes (commonly effort, ability, luck, or level of task difficulty) and failures (often lack of ability or lack of effort) have important implications for how they approach and cope with learning situations.

一旦孩子开始上学，他们就会对学校的成功与失败形成自身的价值观，孩子们总结他们成功和失败的根源，对他们是如何处理学习中的情况具有重要的意义。

The beliefs teachers themselves have about teaching and learning and the nature of the expectations they hold for students also exert a powerful influence (Raffini). As Deborah Stipek (1988) notes, "To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn."

对教师来说，他们对教学和他们学生所持有的期望值也同样有重要的作用。正如Deborah 所说的“在很大程度上，如果老师希望他们学习，那他们就会学习。”

Schoolwide goals, policies, and procedures also interact with classroom climate and practices to affirm or alter students' increasingly complex learning-related attitudes and beliefs.

学校的目标、政策和程序也同样影响着课堂扭转，并且日益改变和复杂的作业有影响着学生的关学习态度与信念的改观。

And developmental changes comprise one more strand of the motivational web. For example, although young children tend to maintain high expectations for success even in the face of repeated failure, older students do not. And although younger children tend to see effort as uniformly positive, older children view it as a "double-edged sword" (Ames). To them, failure following high effort appears to carry more negative implications--especially for their self-concept of ability--than failure that results from minimal or no effort.

发展变化使动因走向又包含了更多的可能。例如，在连续遭遇失败后，虽然年龄小的孩子对成功仍然保持很高的期望值，而大的学生则不会如此。即使较小的孩子仍能保持乐观的态度继续努力，但年龄大的孩子却把它视为双刃剑，对他们来讲做出很大的努力而失败比很少努力或根本不努力而失败似乎带来更大的负面影响，特别是他们对自己能力的评价。

Are there advantages to intrinsic motivation?

是否内在动机具有优势？

Does it really matter whether students are primarily intrinsically or extrinsically oriented toward learning? A growing body of evidence suggests that it does.

搞清楚最初是由内因与外因地对待学习真的很重要吗？补充的系列部分表明了是这样的。

When intrinsically motivated, students tend to employ strategies that demand more effort and that enable them to process information more deeply (Lepper).

在内在动机的驱使下，学生倾向于更加努力其所学的东西要牢固些。

J. Condry and J. Chambers (1978) found that when students were confronted with complex intellectual tasks, those with an intrinsic orientation used more logical information-gathering and decision-making strategies than did students who were extrinsically oriented.

J. Condry and J. Chambers (1978)发现：当学生们面对复杂的智力任务时，相对于那些外因其作用的学生，内因其作用的学生在搜集信息方面更具逻辑性，判断也更具策略。

Students with an intrinsic orientation also tend to prefer tasks that are moderately challenging, whereas extrinsically oriented students gravitate toward tasks that are low in degree of difficulty. Extrinsically oriented students are inclined to put forth the minimal amount of effort necessary to get the maximal reward (Lepper).

同时，内因起作用的学生倾向于更具挑战性的尝试；相反，在外因驱使下的学生则会选择一些低难度的事情，并且他们喜欢做一些低投入高产出的事情。

Although every educational activity cannot, and perhaps should not, be intrinsically motivating, these findings suggest that when teachers can capitalize on existing intrinsic motivation, there are several potential benefits.

虽然每个教学活动不可能，也不应该从内在来激励学生；但是，研究表明，当老师利用学生已有的内在动机，是有一定好处的。

How can motivation to learn be fostered in the school setting?

在学校如何在早期培养学习动机？

Although students' motivational histories accompany them into each new classroom setting, it is essential for teachers to view themselves as "ACTIVE SOCIALIZATION AGENTS capable of stimulating...student motivation to learn" (Brophy 1987).

虽然学生的动机历程会伴随他们每个学习层次，但对于老师来说，将他们自己视为“能够激励学生学习能动性的社会主体”这点相当重要。

Classroom climate is important. If students experience the classroom as a caring, supportive place where there is a sense of belonging and everyone is valued and respected, they will tend to participate more fully in the process of learning.

课堂气氛非常重要。如果学生所处是一个团结友爱的课堂里面，在这里，每个人的都具有归属感并且每个人的自我价值，自我尊重得以实现，那么他们将有更大经历投入到学习中去。

Various task dimensions can also foster motivation to learn. Ideally, tasks should be challenging but achievable. Relevance also promotes motivation, as does "contextualizing" learning, that is, helping students to see how skills can be applied in the real world (Lepper). Tasks that involve "a moderate amount of discrepancy or incongruity" are beneficial because they stimulate students' curiosity, an intrinsic motivator (Lepper).

大量不同的任务也能培养学生的学习动机。在理想情况下，尝试应当是具有挑战性，而不只是完成。具有社会实用性的事也促进动机的形成，如情景学习，它将帮助学生看到：在现实世界中去的技能是如何被应用的。具有适度差异或不协调成分的尝试是有益的，因为，他们能激发学生的好奇心，内在动机。

In addition, defining tasks in terms of specific, short-term goals can assist students to associate effort with success (Stipek). Verbally noting the purposes of specific tasks when introducing them to students is also beneficial (Brophy 1986).

同时，具有特殊的、短期效果的目标能帮助学生将努力与成功联系起来。利用口头的形式向学生介绍布置这种特殊任务，这是有好处的。

Extrinsic rewards, on the other hand, should be used with caution, for they have the potential for decreasing existing intrinsic motivation.

另一方面，外在的奖励应该慎重，因为这对他们的内在动机是有影响的。

What takes place in the classroom is critical, but "the classroom is not an island" (Martin Maehr and Carol Midgley 1991). Depending on their degree of congruence with classroom goals and practices, schoolwide goals either dilute or enhance classroom efforts. To support motivation to learn, school-level policies and practices

should stress "learning, task mastery, and effort" (Maehr and Midgley) rather than relative performance and competition.

虽然教室里发生的点点滴滴至关重要，但课堂不是孤岛。学校的目标将冲淡或增强班级的努力，这取决于它与不同等级班机目标和练习的一致性。为了增强学习动机，学校政策与实践水平应与“学习，主要尝试，努力”相适应，而不是与之无关的表现与竞争。

What can be done to help unmotivated student?

如何帮助被动学习的学生?

A first step is for educators to recognize that even when students use strategies that are ultimately self-defeating (such as withholding effort, cheating, procrastination, and so forth), their goal is actually to protect their sense of self-worth (Raffini).

对教育工作者而言首先要认识到当学生运用一些弄巧成搓的小伎俩（如，不努力、欺骗、拖延等等），这其实是他们在保护自身价值的意识。

A process called ATTRIBUTION RETRAINING, which involves modeling, socialization, and practice exercises, is sometimes used with discouraged students. The goals of attribution retraining are to help students to (1) concentrate on the tasks rather than becoming distracted by fear of failure; (2) respond to frustration by retracing their steps to find mistakes or figuring out alternative ways of approaching a problem instead of giving up; and (3) attribute their failures to insufficient effort, lack of information, or reliance on ineffective strategies rather than to lack of ability (Brophy 1986).

一种被称为“归因训练”（涉及到榜样，社会化以及实践）有时被运用到灰心的学生身上，归因训练的目的是帮助学生：（1）将精力集中到任务的根本上来，而不是因害怕失败而心灰意冷；（2）回溯过程发现错误或另辟蹊径解决问题，而不是放弃；（3）找到失败的所在，努力不够吗？缺乏信息？策略不够？而不是缺乏能力。

Other potentially useful strategies include the following: portray effort as investment rather than risk, portray skill development as incremental and domain-specific, focus on mastery (Brophy 1986).

其他一些重要的手段包括以下几个方面：将努力视为投资而不是冒险，将能力增长视为对特定领域掌握能力的增强(Brophy 1986)。

Because the potential payoff--having students who value learning for its own sake--is priceless, it is crucial for parents, teachers, and school leaders to devote themselves fully to engendering, maintaining, and rekindling students' motivation to learn.

因为有为自身而学习的意识是非常难能可贵，所以，对于家长，老师及学校领导而言，很重要的一点就是致力于激起，保持及重新唤起学生的学习动力。

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Lesson 1 II. Translation Put the following passages into Chinese. 1. For English is a killer. It is English that has killed off Cumbric, Cornish, Norn and Manx. There are still parts of these islands where sizeable communities speak languages that were there before English. Yet English is everywhere in everyday use and understood by all or virtually all, constituting such a threat to the three remaining Celtic languages, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh... that their long-term future must be considered... very greatly at risk. 因为英语是个杀手。正是英语造成了凯尔特语、康沃尔语、诺恩语和马恩语等语言的消亡。这些岛上的分地区依然还有很多社区的人使用在英语到来之前就已存在的语言。然而，英语在日常生活中无处不在。所有的人或几乎所有的人都懂英语。英语对仅存的三种凯尔特语——爱尔兰语、苏格兰盖尔语及威尔士语的威胁是如此之大，人们一定认为它们遥远的未来是岌岌可危的。 2. He also associated such policies with a prejudice which he calls linguisticism (a condition parallel to racism and sexism). As Phillipson sees it, leading institutions and individuals within the predominantly "white" English-speaking world, have (by design or default) encouraged or at least tolerated—and certainly have not opposed—the hegemonic spread of English, a spread which began some three centuries ago as economic and colonial expansion. 同时，他认为这些政策和他称之为语言歧视（与种族歧视、性别歧视等类似）的偏见密切相关。在菲利普森看来，在以白人英语为主导的世界里，主要的机构和个人（有意或无意地）鼓励或者至少是容忍了（肯定没有反对）英语霸权主义式的传播，这种传播始于三个世纪之前的经济及殖民扩张。 3.By and large, we now view them as more or less benign, and often talk with admiration and appreciation about the cultures associated with them and what they have given to the world. And it is fairly safe to do this, because none of them now poses much of a threat. 总的来说，我们现在或多或少地把这些语言看作有利的语言。在谈到与之相关的文化及其为世界所做的贡献时，我们常怀有崇敬与赞赏，而且这样做是很安全的，因为这些语言现在已不会构成什么大的威胁。 4. Yet many people see English as a blessing. Let me leave aside here the obvious advantages possessed by any world language, such as a large communicative network, a strong literary and media complex, and a powerful cultural and educational apparatus. 然而，许多人把英语看成是一件幸事。在此，我暂且不谈世界语言所具有的明显优势，例如庞大的交流网络、发达的文字与传媒体系以及强大的文化教育设施。 5. English-speaking South Africans of British descent were not particularly strong in opposing the apartheid regime, and the black opposition, whose members had many languages, was at first weak and disorganized. 讲英语的南非英国后裔并不强烈反对种族隔离政权，而黑人反对力量，其成员讲多种语言，在初期软弱无力且缺乏组织。 6. Such symbolism suggests that the users of the world's lingua franca should seek to benefit as fully as possible from the blessing and as far as possible avoid invoking the curse. 这一象征表明这种世界通用语的使用者应充分发掘这一幸事为我们带来的好处,同时尽能避免招来灾难。

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Unit 1 Genetically modified foods -- Feed the World? If you want to spark a heated debate at a dinner party, bring up the topic of genetically modified foods. For many people, the concept of genetically altered, high-tech crop production raises all kinds of environmental, health, safety and ethical questions. Particularly in countries with long agrarian traditions -- and vocal green lobbies -- the idea seems against nature. 如果你想在某次晚宴上挑起一场激烈的争论，那就提出转基因食品的话题吧。对许多人来说，高科技的转基因作物生产的概念会带来诸如环境、健康、安全和伦理等方面的各种问题。特别是在有悠久的农业生产传统和主张环保的游说集团的国家里，转基因食品的主意似乎有悖自然。 In fact, genetically modified foods are already very much a part of our lives. A third of the corn and more than half the soybeans and cotton grown in the US last year were the product of biotechnology, according to the Department of Agriculture. More than 65 million acres of genetically modified crops will be planted in the US this year. The genetic is out of the bottle. 事实上，转基因食品已经成为我们生活重要的一部分。根据农业部的统计，美国去年所种植玉米的1／3，大豆和棉花的一半以上都是生物技术的产物。今年，美国将种植6500多万英亩的转基因作物。基因妖怪已经从瓶子里跑出来了。 Yet there are clearly some very real issues that need to be resolved. Like any new product entering the food chain, genetically modified foods must be subjected to rigorous testing. In wealthy countries, the debate about biotech is tempered by the fact that we have a rich array of foods to choose from -- and a supply that far exceeds our needs. In developing countries desperate to feed fast-growing and underfed populations; the issue is simpler and much more urgent: Do the benefits of biotech outweigh the risks? 但是，显然还有一些非常现实的问题需要解决。就像任何一种要进入食物链的新食品一样，转基因食品必须经过严格的检验。在富裕的国家里，由于有大量丰富的食品可供选择，而且供应远远超过需求，所以关于生物技术的争论相对缓和一些。在迫切想要养活其迅速增长而又吃不饱的人口的发展中国家，问题比较简单，也更加紧迫：生物技术的好处是否大于风险呢? The statistics on population growth and hunger are disturbing. Last year the world's population reached 6 billion. And by 2050, the UN estimates, it will probably near 9 billion. Almost all that growth will occur in developing countries. At the same time, the world's available cultivable land per person is declining. Arable land has

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Unit 1 part one Angel at Work Ⅰ Reading for information 1.C 2.D 3.B 4.A 5.C 6.A Ⅲ Summary 1.to transcribe his Sunday speeches /too much to handle 2.out of the blue/ share the inspiration 3.deliver the tape personally/the mystery of the arrangement 4.personal contact/spastic 5.asked for reward/full and dedicated Unit 2 part one My Miraculous Life Ⅰ Reading for information 1.A 2.D 3.B 4.C 5.A 6 C Unit 3 part one A Thief Ⅰ Reading for information 1.D 2.B 3.D 4.C.A 5.B 6 C Ⅲ Summary 1.the ticket counter/a leather coat 2.a cocktail bar/catches sight of a blonde girl/a Travellers Aid counter 3. a magazine/becomes aware of/jostling/blushes

4. lifted/back pocket 5. a front window/hand her over 6. wrong/bolts 7. has stolen Unit 4 part one Escape Artists Ⅰ Reading for information 1.B 2.C 3.A 4.D 5.B 6.C Ⅲ Summary 1.publishing/overseen 2.procrastinator/affected https://www.sodocs.net/doc/744195185.html,ziness/desire/consistently/delay 4.funishes/reinforcing/subscribe 5.mismatch/sophisticated 6.solution/deploying/management Unit 5 part one For Big Bruno, a Man We Can Look Up to Ⅰ Reading for information 1.B 2.D 3.B 4.C 5.A 6.C Ⅲ Summary 1.hard work/pay off 2.Big Bruno/strong in stature/a gentle spirit 3.most patient/slow to get angry/a heart of gold

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Lesson 1 1. Yesterday’s terrorism darkened, marked and forever altered the way Americans live their lives. 昨日发生的恐怖主义活动使美国人的生活暗淡无光，在他们的生活中留下了印迹，并永远地改变了他们的生活。 2. “We are going to have to learn what a lot of other countries have gone through: to manage fear at a cultural and national level,” said Charles Figley, a professor of trauma psychology at Florida State University. “We’re getting a lesson in the way fear works.” 佛罗里达州立大学创伤心理学教授查尔斯?费格里说:“我们得学一学其它许多国家曾经经历过的东西，那就是从文化上和在全国范围内来应对恐惧。”他还说:“我们正在体验恐惧是怎样起作用的。” 3. In a country long proud and even boastful of its openness—a country where an ordinary citizen can stroll through the U.S. Capitol unescorted—the terrorist attacks are likely to force Americans to a lot of that. Metal detectors now mark the front door of many government buildings, and security guards are a fixture in the lobby of most large office buildings. 美国是一个一向以开放自豪甚至洋洋得意的国家，在这里，人们可以独自在美国国会大楼中闲庭信步，而现在，恐怖袭击很有可能迫使美国人处处小心，惶惶不可终日。其实我们很大程度上已经是这样了。许多政府大楼的前门装设的金属探测器已然成为一道风景线，大部分的办公大楼里也必备保安。 4. But retaliation carries the risk of setting off a tightening spiral of violence and counterviolence not unlike the Middle East or Northern Ireland. Unlike countries that have had to learn to live with violence,”We are new at this,” said Florida’s Dr. Figley, who heads a project that has trained trauma teams in Yugoslavia.”My fear is we will overreach and make things worse rather than better by retribution, revenge, racism and marginalizing ethnic groups.” 报复有很大的危险，会引发和在中东及北爱尔兰一样的紧张的暴力和反暴力的恶性攀升。与那些不得不在暴力中学习如何生存的国家不同，“我们是新手，”曾在南斯拉夫训练过创伤急救队的项目负责人费格里博士说，“我所担心的是惩罚、报复、种族主义和排斥少数民族的举动会过于偏激，适得其反。” 5. Fear of terrorism is likely to lead Americans to tolerate more government surveillance—such as overhead video cameras at sporting events—than they have to date. “It’s very likely in the wake of today’s events that we’re going to see a greater acceptance on the public’s part—and on the court’s part—to approve certain kinds of police tactics,” said William Stuntz, a Harvard Low School professor. 对于恐怖主义的恐惧会使美国人接受比现在更多的来自政府的监控，例如在运动竞赛场上高架的摄象机。哈佛大学法学院教授威廉姆斯?斯汤资说，“经过目前前这些事件，我们将发现，无论是公众，还是法庭，都会在更大程度上接受某些警察的策略。” Lesson 5 戴维先到一步，事后他气愤地向我发难说当他告诉领班准备和谁一起吃饭时，领班的语气骤然逆转。一瞬间就从“这是个什么人？”变成“这边有请，先生。”当我们赶到时，拍照的人已经在饭店外忙个不停了。戴维开始嘲笑我是伦敦这家高级饭店里的知名人物。这时，我俩向屋内望去并同时看到了我们的偶像。

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Lesson 8 IV. Translation Put the following into Chinese. 1. Every war has had its songs that whipped up patriotic fervor or, in the case of the Vietnam War that encouraged protest against it. 每场战争都有自己的歌曲来唤起人们的爱国热情或者如在越南战争中鼓励人们反战。 2. The idea is to take a song that people like or that has particular meaning or emotional association for them and use it with new words, hoping that some of the liking, meaning, or emotional associations will transfer to the new ideas being communicated. And it often works. 改词是把一首人们喜爱或者对他们具有特殊意义或感情色彩的歌曲填上新词，希望把这种喜爱、意义或感情色彩带到正在传播的新观念中。通常这种方法很奏效。 3 As a result, a number of community and national groups have applied pressure on stations to keep these songs and performers off the air. These charges also stimulated investigations by the Federal Communications Commission, the regulatory agency charged with overseeing broadcast practices. 结果一些社团和全国性团体向电台或电视台施加压力让他们禁播这些演员的节目。这些指控也促使负责广播业的监管机构联邦通讯委员会开始进行调查。 4. Does it mean a station should permit no language or ideas in a song that it would not permit on the news or in a sports program? Or does it mean the station should recognize that different forms of communication or entertainment, or programs designed for different kinds of audiences, should have different standards concerning language and ideas? 这是否意味着在广播电台或电视台播放的歌曲中不允许出现那些在新闻或体育节目中禁止出现的语言和观念？或者这是否意味着电台或电视台应该承认不同的交流或娱乐形式，或是为不同听众设计的节目，在语言和观念上应该具有不同的标准？ 5. One author has suggested that popular music also serves a "rite of passage" function for young girls. The teenage singing idols may serve as non-threatening substitutes for actual boys until boys' maturation catches up with that of girls and some semblance of easy boy-girl relationships can be established. 一位作者指出流行音乐也成了女孩子们成熟的标志。在同龄男孩子成长为像女孩子那样成熟并能较容易地与女孩子建立朋友关系之前，少年歌星可能会成为不会对女孩子形成威胁的男友的替身。 V. Oral Practice and Discussion 1. How was music used during World War II and during the Vietnam War? 2. Describe peacetime uses of music. 3. List the major effects and functions of music. 4. Identify the basic issues in the FCC regulatory position. 5. What problems do you foresee in the development of record labeling plans? 6. Adaptation of popular or favorite songs is a persuasive tactic. Where is this technique used today? Cite several examples. (Hint: Advertising commercials) 7. If music shapes our perceptions and attitudes, then, should we be forced to listen to music in public places such as restaurants and shopping malls? 8. Are there other effects of music not included in this article?

研究生英语阅读答案

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