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《法律英语阅读与翻译教程》课文英文版摘录

《法律英语阅读与翻译教程》课文英文版摘录
《法律英语阅读与翻译教程》课文英文版摘录

Legal English : A Coursebook on Reading and Translation

Lesson 1 Law and Classification of Law

1,General Introduction

Law is a system of rules and guidelines,usually enforced through a set of institutions. It shapes politics,economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus ticket to trading on financial derivatives markets. Property law defines rights and obligations related to the transfer and title of personal and real property. Trust law applies to assets held for investment and financial security, while tort law allows to claims for compensation if a person’s rights or property are harmed. If the harm is criminalized in legislation. Criminal law offers means by which state can prosecute the perpetrator. Constitutional law provides a framework for the creation of law, the protection of human rights and the election of political representatives. Administrative law is used to review the decisions of government agencies, while international law governs affairs between sovereign states in activities ranging from trade to environment regulation or military action. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared,” The rule of law is better than any rule of individual.”

Law raises important and complex issues concerning equality,fairness and justness,”In its majestic equality”,said the author Anatole France in 1894,”the law forbids the rich and poor alike to sleep under the bridge, beg in the street and steal loaves of bread.”In a typical democracy, the central institution for interpreting and creating law are the three main branches of government, namely an impartial judiciary, a democratic legislature, and an accountable executive. To implement and enforce the law and provide services for the public, a government’s bureaucracy, the military and police are vital. While all these organs of the state are creatures created and bound by law, an independent legal profession and a vibrant civil society will support their progress.

2, Classification of Law

There are several different ways in which laws can be classified,depending on the criteria or characteristics

a, Substantive Law vs. Procedural Law

Substantive law explains what you can and you cannot do. For example, you

cannot murder another human being unless it was a self-defense, you were under duress, or if you were drugged by another person. Unlike substantive law, procedural law are just steps that must take place when filing a lawsuit against another party.

b, Public Law vs. Private Law

Law can be divided into two main branches:public law and private law. Public law is the body of law dealing with the relations between private individuals and the government, and with the structure and operation of the government itself, including constitution law, criminal law, and administrative law. Private law is the body of law dealing with private persons and their property and relationships.

c, Criminal Law vs. Civil Law

Criminal law or penal law defines breaches of duty to society at large. It is society, through government employees called prosecutors(such as district attorneys),that brings court action against violators. If you are found guilty of a crime such as theft, you will be punished by imprisonment or a fine. Civil law,as opposed to criminal law, is the branch of law dealing with disputes between individuals or organizations, in which compensation may be awarded to the victim. For instance, if a car crash victim claims damages against the driver for loss or injury sustained in an accident, this will be a civil law case.

d, Common Law vs. Civil Law

Common law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action. Common law countries prosecute with the concept of “stare decisis”, which means that these countries such as the United States of America make decisions based on precedents. Because each judicial opinion serves as a precedent for later decisions, as a result, common law is sometimes called judge-made law. Anglo-American law is rooted in the tradition of the common law. In 1881,Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes,Jr. Wrote,”The life of the law has not been logic; It has been experience.” Common law developed as a response to the need to find solutions to the pressing issues of the time. Unlike common law, the principle of civil law is to provide all citizens with an accessible and written collection of the laws which apply to them and which judges must follow.

Lesson 2 Legal Systems: Common Law and Civil Law Every independent country has its own legal system. The system vary according to each country’s social traditions and form of government. But most systems can be classed as either a common-law system or a civil-law system. The United States, Canada, Great Britain,and other English-speaking countries have a common-law system. Most other countries have a civil-law system. Many countries combine features of both systems. A general distinction can be made between civil law jurisdictions,which codify their laws,and common law systems,where judge made law is not consolidated.

1,Common-law System

The common-law system prevails in England, the United States, and other countries colonized by England. It is distinct from the civil-law system,which predominates in Europe and in areas colonized by France and Spain. The common-law system is used in all states of the United States except Louisiana, where French Civil Law combined with English Criminal Law to form a hybrid system. The common-law system is also used in Canada,except in the province of Quebec,where the French civil-law system prevails.

Anglo-American common law evolved chiefly from three English Crown courts of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries: the Exchequer, the King’s Bench, and the Common Pleas. These courts eventually assumed jurisdiction over disputes previously decided by local or manorial courts,such as baronial admiral’s(maritime), guild, and forest courts,whose jurisdiction was limited to specific geographic or subject matter areas. Equality courts,which were instituted to provide relief to litigants in cases where common-law relief was unavailable, also merged with common-law courts. This consolidation of jurisdiction over most legal disputes into several courts was the framework for the modern Anglo-American judicial system.

Common-law courts base their decisions on prior judicial pronouncements rather than on legislative enactments. Common-law judges rely on their predecessor’s decisions of actual controversies, rather than on abstract codes or texts, to guide them in applying the law. Common-law judges find the grounds for their decisions in law reports, which contain decisions of past controversies. Under the doctrine of stare decisis, common-law judges are obliged to adhere to previously decided cases, or precedents, where the facts are substantially the same. A court’s decision is binding authority for similar cases decided by the same court or by lower courts within the

same jurisdiction. The decision is not binding on courts of higher rank within that jurisdiction or courts in other jurisdictions, but it may be considered as persuasive authority.

Under a common-law system, disputes are settled through an adversarial exchange fo arguments and evidence. Both parties present their cases before a neutral fact finder, either a judge or a jury. The judge or jury evaluates the evidence, applies the appropriate law to the facts, and renders a judgment in favor of one of the parties. Following the decision, either party may appeal the decision to a higher court. Appellate courts in a common-law system may review only findings of law, not determinations of fact.

The lawmaking role of legislatures in common law countries has increased greatly during the 1900’s. For example, the United States Congress has made major changes in American contract and property law. The changes have dealt, for example, with such matters as labor-management relations, worker’s wages and hours, health,safety, and environmental protection. Nevertheless ,common-law countries have kept the basic feature of the English legal system, which is the power of judges to make laws. In addition, constitutional law in these countries continues the common-law tradition of defending the people’s rights and liberties.

2,Civil-law System

Civil-law systems are based mainly on statutes. The majority of civil-law countries have assembled their statures into one or more carefully organized collections called codes.

Most modern law codes can be traced back to the famous code that was commissioned by the Roman Emperor Justinian I in the A.D. 500’s. Justinian’s code updated and summarized the whole of Roman law, which was called the Corpus Juris Civilis, meaning Body of Civil Law. For this reason, legal systems that are based on the Roman system of stature and code law are known as civil-law systems. This use of the term civil law should not be confused with its use as an alternate term for private law. Civil-law systems include both private law and public law.

The monumental Corpus Juris Civilis commissioned by Justinian still influences the evolution of law in virtually every civil-law country. The roots of civil law are so deeply imbedded in French jurisprudence that French universities did not even teach common law until 1689. It affects legal rules, legal thought, legal classifications, the treatment of legal precedents and techniques, and the organization of court systems.

One interesting aspect of civil law is that it transfer from place to place more easily than common law. It is sometimes said that there are two branches of civil law: French and German. The civil codes of both countries have proven particularly adaptable. For example, the French Civil Code(or Napoleonic Code), first promulgated by Napoleon I in 1804, is the basis of the laws of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and parts of Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, Spain,Romania, and parts of Africa and South America also borrowed the Code Civil as a guide for local civil codes. In North America, for example, the civil laws of both the state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec are rooted in the Code Civil. Inherited from the Holy Roman Empire, the German Civil Code, which was enacted in 1900, also reveals the strong influence of Roman civil law. Although its reach has been much narrower than that of the French Code Civil, it has been important in such far-reaching sites as Thailand, China,Japan,Eastern Europe, and Greece.

Lesson 3 Judicial System of the United States

1,General Introduction

Court organization in the United States is complicated by the form of government, federalism. Instead of a single, unified court system such as exists in Great Britain or France, the United States actually has fifty-one court systems-the federal courts and the courts of the fifty individual states.

The United States Congress and the state legislatures are free to organize their respective court system to meet their own needs. Not only is the federal court structure different from those in the states, but there is also tremendous diversity among the individual states. A trial court might be called a district court in one state, a superior court in another, and a supreme court in yet another. Most states have a single supreme court; two states, Oklahoma and Texas, have two courts of last resort-one for civil appeals and one for criminal appeals. Such diversity makes it difficult to

generalize about the “typical” state court system.

Each state is free to determine for itself what behavior is forbidden, and each is free to establish reasonable punishment for defined crimes. Consequently, two states may have entirely different definitions of the same criminal act and two entirely different penalties for it.

2,State Court System

Although there is no “typical” state court system because federalism allows each state to adopt a court system fitted to its individual needs, a state court system usually includes several levels, or tiers, of courts. State courts may include trial courts of limited jurisdiction, trial courts of general jurisdiction, appellate courts,and the state’s highest court(often called the state supreme court). Generally , and person who is a party to a lawsuit has the opportunities to plead the case before a trial court and then, if he or she loses, before at least one level of appellate court. Finally, if a federal stature or federal constitutional issue is involved in the decision of the state Supreme Court, that decision may be further appealed to the United States Supreme Court. (1)Courts of limited jurisdiction

All state courts have had their jurisdiction limited in some way. The jurisdiction of any court comes from the state constitution or from statutes passed by the state legislature, or both. Courts of limited jurisdiction, as their name implies, are created to handle cases of limited or special nature. Court of limited jurisdiction is the first set of state trial courts.

One of the most common courts of limited jurisdiction is the municipal court. Municipal courts are often limited to minor offenses or misdemeanors. Municipal courts are often referred as”traffic courts”because their main function is to hear cases involving traffic violations within the city limits. Municipal courts frequently have jurisdiction over cases involving violations of city ordinances.

Another category of courts of limited jurisdiction includes county courts. Like municipal courts,which are limited to exercising their jurisdiction within city limits, county courts’ jurisdiction is limited to county lines. County courts typically have a greater expanse of jurisdiction than municipal courts. In criminal cases, for example, county courts may have jurisdiction over offenses with penalties as great as one year in prison and relatively high fines.

(2) Courts of general jurisdiction

A second level of courts in most state judicial system consists of courts of

general jurisdiction. A court of general jurisdiction has the power to hear any case that falls within the general judicial power of the state. That is , a court of general jurisdiction has the authority to render a verdict in any case capable of judicial resolution under the constitution and laws of the state. Courts of general jurisdiction are the major trial courts of the state. They may be called superior courts, district courts, circuit courts, as in the case of New York, supreme courts. Court of general jurisdiction is another set of state trial courts.

(3)Appellate courts

All states have some kind of appeals mechanism available for litigants who were unsuccessful at the trial-court level. Most states have created an intermediate appeals courts between the trial courts and the states highest court of appeal. The purpose of intermediate appeals is to guarantee the litigants the right to at least one appeal while preventing the state’s highest court from having to hear “routine”appeals. These intermediate appellate courts screen out the routine cases so that only the most important cases reach the states’s highest court.

(4)State Supreme(Highest) Courts

Every state has a highest appellate court, usually called the state supreme court. Many states have chosen to pattern their state’s highest court after the U.S. Supreme Court in the number of justices, procedures, and so forth. The highest appellate court in a state is usually called the Supreme Court but many be called by some other names. For example,in both New York and Maryland, the highest state court is called the court of appeals. The decisions of each state’s highest court on all questions of state law are final. Only when issues of federal law are involved can a decision made by a state’s highest court be overruled by the United States Supreme Court.

3,The Federal Court System

The federal court system is characterized by two types of courts:constitutional and legislative. Constitutional courts are sometimes referred as Article Ⅲcourts because they are created under Article Ⅲof Constitution, which authorizes Congress to “ordain and establish” courts inferior to the Supreme Court. The Constitution also states that judges of both the supreme and inferior courts”shall hold their Offices during good Behavior”,which is tantamount to a lifetime appointment, subject to removal only through the impeachment process. Furthermore, Congress may not reduce the salaries of constitutional court judges “during their Continuance in Office”, U.S district courts, U.S. Courts of appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court are examples

of constitutional courts.

Legislative court are created by Congress, pursuant to one of its legislative powers. Article I empowers Congress to make all laws”...for organizing, arming, and disciplining the Militia.”Under that authority, Congress may establish military tribunals for the purpose of disciplining soldiers. Two major distinctions generally differentiate legislative courts from constitutional courts. First , the judges who serve in the legislative courts do not have lifetime appointment, but instead serve fixed terms of office. The length of the term designated by Congress is often a long one in order to ensure judicial independence. The second distinction is that a legislative court judge’s salary is not protected by Constitution, as in the case of constitutional court judges.

In conclusion, the federal court system is composed of courts created by Congress under either Article I or Article Ⅲpowers. The federal courts are not “ superior” to state courts: rather, they exist alongside state courts. The vast majority of cases are tried in state courts. Nevertheless, the federal courts remain an alternative forum that citizens can turn to for relief if state courts prove unresponsive. It is no surprise to discover that southern African Americans preferred to file their civil rights cases in federal rather than state courts, since southern judges were notoriously unsympathetic to African American claims. Despite the confusion caused by federalism, a dual court system provides additional guarantees that justice will eventually prevail.

Lesson 4 Constitutional Law

1,General Introduction

Most commonly, the term constitution refers to a set of rules and principles that define the nature and extent of government. Most constitutions seek to regulate the relationship between institutions of the state, in a basic sense the relationship between the executive, legislature and the judiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches. For example, executive branches can be divided into a head of government, government departments/ministries, executive agencies and a civil

service.

Most constitutions also attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish the broad rights of individual citizens. It is thus the most basic law of a territory from which all the other laws and rules are hierarchically derived; in some territories it is in fact called”Basic Law”. Constitutions may also provide that their most basic principles can never be abolished, even by amendment. In case a formally valid amendment of a constitution infringes these principles protected against any amendment, it may constitute a so-called unconstitutional constitutional law.

2,Codified Constitution and Uncodified Constitution

(1)Codified constitution

Most states in the world have codified constitutions(also known as written constitutions). Codified constitutions are often the product of some dramatic political change, such as a revolution. The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historical and political context driving this fundamental change. States that have codified constitutions normally give the constitution supremacy over ordinary statute law. That is, if there is any conflict between a statute and the codified constitution, all or part of the statute can be declared ultra vires by a court, and struck down as unconstitutional. In the United States, the Supreme Court is the final interpreter of the Constitution and has the power to rule on the constitutionality of the actions of the other two branches of government as well as those of the states and other governmental entities. Through judicial elaboration of the meaning of the Constitution, the Court can broaden or limit the powers of the president and the Congress. In so doing, the Court breaths life into the Constitution, making it a “living” document that changes as the nation changes.

Codified constitutions normally consist of a preamble, which sets forth the goals of the state and the motivation for the constitution, and several articles containing the substantive provisions. The preamble, which is omitted in some constitutions, may contain a reference to God and/or to fundamental values of the state such as liberty,democracy or human rights.

(2)Uncodified constitution

As of 2010 at least three states have uncodified constitutions:Israel, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Uncodified constitutions(also known as unwritten constitutions) are the product of an “evolution”of laws and conventions over

centuries. By contrast to codified constitutions, uncodified constitutions include written sources like constitutional statutes enacted by the Parliament and also unwritten sources,such as constitutional conventions, observation of precedents, royal prerogatives, custom and tradition. In the ways of the British Empire, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council acted as the constitutional court for many of the British Colonies such as Canada and Australia which had federal constitutions.

3,Functions of Constitutions

(1)State and legal structure

One of the key tasks of constitutions is to indicate hierarchies and relationships of power. In a unitary state, the constitution will vest ultimate authority in one central administration and legislature, and judiciary, though there is often a delegation of power or authority to local or municipal authorities. In contrast, a federal form of government is one in which the states form a union and the sovereign power is divided between a central governing authority and the member states. The U.S. Constitution delegates certain powers to the national government, and the states retain all powers not delegated to the national government. The relationship between the national government and the state governments is a partnership; neither partner is superior to the other except within the particular area of authority granted to it under the Constitution.

(2)Human rights

Human rights or civil liberties form a crucial part of a country’s constitution and govern the rights of the individual against the states. The United States and France each have a codified constitution with a bill of rights. Perhaps the most important example is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights under the UN Charter. These are intended to ensure basic political, social and economic standards that a nation or intergovernmental body is obliged to provide to its citizens.

Some countries like the Unite Kingdom have no entrenched document setting out fundamental rights;in those jurisdictions the constitution is composed of statute, case law and convention. A case named Entick v. Carrington is a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. John Entick’s house was searched and ransacked by Sheriff Carrington. Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of Halifax was valid authority, even though there was no statutory provision or court order for it.

Inspired by John Locke, the court, led by Lord Camden stated that,”The great

end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their property. That right is preserved sacred and incommunicable in all instances, where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole. By the laws of England,every invasion of private property, be it ever so minute, is a trespass...”The case hence created the fundamental constitutional principle is that the individual can do anything but that which is forbidden by law, while the state may do nothing but that which is authorized by law.

(3)Legislative procedure

Another main function of constitutions may be to describe the procedure by which parliaments may legislate. For instance, special majorities may be required to alter the constitution. In bicameral legislatures, there may be a process laid out for second or third readings of bills before a new law can enter into force.

Lesson 5 Criminal law

1,General Introduction

Criminal law is the body of law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders, and fixes punishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particular crimes, and procedural law established rules for the prosecution of crime. In a democratic society, it is the function of legislative bodies to decide what behavior vill be made criminal and what penalties will be attached to violations of the law.

Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. And physical or corporal punishment may still be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. A convict may be incarcerated in prison or jail and the length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.

Criminal law is a reflection of the society that produces it. In an Islamic theocracy, such as Iran, criminal law will reflect the religious teachings of the Koran; in a Catholic country, it will reflect the tenets of Catholicism. In addition, criminal law will change to reflect changes in society, especially attitude changes. For instance,

use of marijuana was once considered a serious crime with harsh penalties, whereas today the penalties in most states are relatively light. As public tolerance of marijuana use grew. As a society advances, its judgments about crime and punishment change. 2,Elements of a Crime

Obviously, different crimes require different behaviors, but there are common elements necessary for proving all crimes. First , the prohibited behavior designated as a crime must be clearly defined so that a reasonable person can be forewarned that engaging in that behavior is illegal. Second ,the accused must be shown to have possessed the requisite intent to commit the crime. Third ,the state must prove causation. Finally , the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed to crime.

(1)actus reus

The first element of cirme is the actus reus. Actus is an act or action and reus is a person judicially accused of a crime. Therefore, actus reus is literally the action of a person accused of a crime. A criminal statute must clearly define exactly what act is deemed “guilty”-that is, the exact behavior that is being prohibited. That is done so that all persons are put on notice that if they perform the guilty act, they will be liable for criminal punishment. Unless the actus reus is clearly defined, one might not know whether or not one’s behavior is illegal.

Actus reus may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action, or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of Cain striking Abel might suffice, or a parent’s failure to give food to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.

Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation, and occasionally through one’s official position. Duty also can arise from one’s own creation of a dangerous situation.

(2)mens rea

A second element of a crime is mens rea. Mens rea refers to an individual’s state of mind when a crime is committed. While actus reus is proven by physical or eyewitness evidence, mens rea is more difficult to ascertain. The jury must determine for itself whether the accused had the necessary intent to commit the act.

A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance, if Cain

tears a gas meter from a wall, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbor’s house, he could be liable for poisoning. Courts often consider whether the actor did recognize the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a risk. Of course, a requirement only that one ought to have recognized a danger(though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea has been reduced in some areas of the criminal law.

Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing affected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.

(3)Causation

The next element is causation. Often the phrase”but for”is used to determine whether causation has occurred. For example, we might say “Cain killed Abel”, by which we really mean”Cain caused Abel’s death.”In other words,”But for Cain’s act,Abel would still be alive.”Causation, then, means”but for”the actions of A, B would not have been harmed. In criminal law, causation is an element that must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.

(4)Proof beyond a Reasonable Doubt

In view of the fact that in criminal cases we are dealing with the life and liberty of the accused person, as well as the stigma accompanying conviction, the legal system places strong limits on the power of the state to convict a person of a crime. Criminal defendants are presumed innocent. The state must overcome this presumption of innocence by proving every element of the offense charged against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt to the satisfaction of all the jurors. This requirement is the primary way our system minimizes the risk of convicting an innocent person.

The state must prove its case within a framework of procedural safeguards that are designed to protect the accused. The state’s failure to prove any material element of its case results in the accused being acquitted or found not guilty, even though he or she may actually have committed the crime charged.

3,Strict Liability

In modern society, some crimes require no more mens rea, and they are known as strict liability offenses. For instance, under the Road Traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed

limit.

Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly.

Lesson 6 Defendant’s Rights in the Criminal Justice System There are two fundamental aspects of the U.S. Criminal justice system-the presumption that the defendant is innocent and the burden on the prosecution to prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. Furthermore, criminal defendants have other rights too.

1,The Defendant’s Right to Remain Silent

The Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution provides that a defendant cannot be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself. In short, the defendant has the right to “sit mute”. The prosecutor cannot call the defendant as a witness, nor can a judge or defense attorney force the defendant to testify if the defendant chooses to remain silent. By contrast, a defendant may be called as a witness in a civil case.

A defendant in a criminal trial may choose whether or not to give evidence in the proceedings. Further , there is no general duty to assist the police with their inquiries. Although certain financial investigatory bodies have the power to require a person to answer questions and impose a penalty if a person refuses, if a person gives evidence in such proceedings, the prosecution cannot adduce such evidence in a criminal trial.

The Supreme Court ruled that the government cannot punish a criminal defendant for exercising his right to silence, by allowing the prosecutor to ask the jury to draw an inference of guilt from the defendant’s refusal to testify in his own defense. The Court overturned as unconstitutional under the federal constitution a provision of the California state constitution that explicitly granted such power to prosecutors.

2,The Defendant’s Right to Confront Witness

The “confrontation clause” of the Sixth Amendment gives defendants the right to

“be confronted by the witness against”them. Implicit in this right is the right to cross-examine witnesses-that is,the right to require the witnesses to come to court,”look the defendant in the eye”, and subject themselves to questioning by the defense. The Sixth Amendment prevents secret trials, and except for limited exceptions, forbids prosecutors from proving a defendant’s guilt with written statements from absent witnesses.

Like most of the protections given criminal defendants in the Constitution, the right of confronting witness has its origins in English common law. Until the sixteenth century, the right of confronting witness was nearly absent from the Anglo-American legal tradition. Then ,with the introduction of the right to trial by an impartial jury and the firm establishment of the presumption of innocence, the right of confrontation came to be seen as an integral part of the proper defense rights of the accused.

Through cross-examination, defendants are allowed to test the reliability and credibility of witnesses. However , the right of cross-examination also has limits. For example, defendants may be denied the right to ask questions that are irrelevant, collateral, confusing, repetitive, or prejudicial.

3,The Defendant’s Right to a Public Trial

The Sixth Amendment guarantees public trials in criminal cases. This is an important right, because the presence in courtrooms of a defendant’s family and friends, ordinary citizens and the press can help ensure that the government observes other important rights associated with trials.

In a few situations, normally involving children, the court will close the court to the public. For example, judges can bar the public from attending cases when defendants are charged with sexual assaults against children. In recent years, legislators have been concerned about defendants who escape punishment for sexually molesting young children because the children are afraid to testify in the defendant’s presence. To address this problem, many states have enacted special rules that authorize judges-in certain situations-to allow children to testify via closed circuit television. The defendant can see the child on a television monitor, but the child cannot see the defendant. The defense attorney can be personally present where the child is testifying and can cross-examine the child

4,The Defendant’s Right to be Represented by an Attorney

The Sixth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution provides that “in all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right...to have the assistance of counsel for

his defense.”A judge must appoint an attorney for indigent defendants(defendants who cannot afford to hire attorneys)at government expense only if the defendants might be actually imprisoned for a period of more than six months for the crime. As a practical matter, judges routinely appoint attorneys for indigents in nearly all cases in which a jail sentence is a possibility.

In a series of cases, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that American indigents do have a right to counsel, but only in criminal cases. The federal government and some states have offices of public defenders which assist indigent defendants, while other states have systems for outsourcing the work to private lawyers. A judge normally appoints the attorney for an indigent defendant at the defendant’s first court appearance. For most defendants, the first court appearance is either an arraignment or a bail bearing.

The job of defense counsel at trial is to prepare and offer a vigorous defense on behalf of the accused. A proper defense often involves the presentation of evidence and the examination of witness, all of which requires careful thought and planning. Good attorneys, like quality craftspeople everywhere, may find themselves emotionally committed to the outcome of trials in which they are involved.

Lesson 7 Contract Law

A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between two or more parties with mutual obligations. Contracts can be in writing,orally or verbally agreed upon(parol contracts)or cerated through the actings of the parties. The remedy at law for breach of contract is usually”damages”or monetary compensation. In equity, the remedy can be specific performance of the contract or an injunction. The importance of contract stability is emphasized by Article I, §10 of the U.S. Constitution, which provides that”No state shall...pass https://www.sodocs.net/doc/7c13369506.html,w impairing the Obligation of Contracts.”

At common law, the element of a contract are mutual assent and consideration. 1,Mutual Assent: Offer and Acceptance

At common law, mutual assent is typically reached through offer and acceptance. That is , when an offer is met with an acceptance that does not vary the offer’s terms.

The requirement is known as the “mirror image”rule. If a purported acceptance does vary the terms of an offer, it is not an acceptance but a counteroffer and, therefore, simultaneously a rejection of the original offer.

Offer and acceptance does not always need to be expressed orally or in writing. An implied contract is one in which some of the terms are not expressed in words. The implied contract is in two kinds of forms.

(1)Contract Implied in Fact

A contract which is implied in fact is one in which the circumstances imply that parties have reached an agreement even though they have not done so expressly. For example, by going to a doctor for a checkup, a patient agrees that he will pay a fair price for the service. If one refuses to pay after being examined, the patient has breached a contract implied in fact.

(2)Contract Implied in Law

A contract which is implied in law is also called a quasi-contract, because it is not in fact a contract; rather, the obligation is created by law in absence of agreement between the parties for reasons of justice and fairness. It is a means for the courts to remedy situations in which one party would be unjustly enriched were the or she not required to compensate the other.

For example, a plumber accidentally installs a sprinkler system in the lawn of the wrong house. The owner of the house had learned the previous day that his neighbor was getting new sprinklers. That morning, he sees the plumber installing them in his lawn. Pleased at the mistake, he says nothing, and then refuses to pay when the plumber delivers the bill.

Will the man be held liable for payment? Yes , if it could be proven that the man knew that the sprinklers were being installed mistakenly, the court would make him pay because of a quasi-contract. If that knowledge could not be proven, he would not be liable. Such a claim is also referred to as”quantum meruit”.

2,Consideration:Sufficient and Insufficient

Consideration is something of value given by a promissor to a promisee in exchange for something of value given by a promisee to a promissor. Typically, the thing of value is an act, such as making a payment, or a forbearance to act when one is privileged to do so, such as an adult refraining from smoking.

Consideration must be sufficient, but courts will not weight the adequacy of consideration. For instance, agreeing to sell a car for a penny may constitute a binding

contract. All that must be shown is that the seller actually wanted the penny. This is known as the peppercorn rule. Otherwise, the penny would constitute nominal consideration, which is insufficient. Parties may do this for tax purposes, attempting to disguise gift transaction as contracts.

Past consideration is not sufficient. Indeed , it is an oxymoron. For instance, the guardian of a young girl obtained a loan to educate the girl and to improve her marriage prospects. After her marriage, her husband promised to pay off the loan. It was held that the guardian could not enforce the promise because taking out the loan to raise and educate the girl was past consideration-it was completed before the husband promised to repay it.

The insufficiency of past consideration is related to the preexisting duty rule. For instance, a captain’s promise to divide the wages of two deserters among the remaining crew if they would sail home from the Baltic short-handed, was found unenforceable on the grounds that the crew were already contracted to sail the ship through all perils of the sea.

3,Classification of Contract

(1)Express contract and implied contract

An express contract is one in which the terms are stated by the parties; it may be either an oral or written contract. An implied contract is one that is inferred from the conduct of the parties.

(2)Bilateral contract and unilateral contract

A bilateral contract is one in which the parties exchange promises to do some future act. For example, you agree with the car dealer that you will pay for your car when you take delivery next week. Each of you has promised to do something in the future: the dealer to deliver the car and you to pay for it. In contrast,a unilateral contract is one in which one party acts immediately in response to the offer.

(3)Executory contract and executed contract

An executory contract is one in which some or all of the terms are uncompleted the car deal in above paragraph, for example. An executed contract,then , is one which all terms have been completed. For instance, you have eaten your meal and paid your bill at the restaurant.

(4)Void, voidable and unenforceable contract

The terms “void, voidable and unenforceable”are relevant in situations where there is a breach of contract or when one party fails to comply with the terms of the

agreement.

A void contract is a nullity from its beginning, and damages do not result. A voidable contract is one that is binding until it is disaffirmed or canceled by the party with the authority to do so. In many ways, marriage is a contract that either party may rescind by obtaining a divorce. Unenforceable contracts are those that meet the basic common law elements for contracts but lack some other additional legal requirements such as being signed in front of a notary public.

Lesson 8 Tort Law

1,General Introduction

A tort, in common law jurisdictions , is awrong that involves a breach of a civil duty(other than a contractual duty)owned to someone else. It is differentiated from a crime,which involves a breach of a duty owed to society in general. Though many acts are both torts and crimes, prosecutions for crime are mostly the responsibility of the state, private prosecutions being rarely used;whereas any party who has been injured may bring a lawsuit for tort. One who commits a tortious act is called a tortfeasor.

A person who suffers a tortious injury is entitled to receive”damages”,usually monetary compensation, from the person or people responsible for those injuries. Tort law defines what a legal injury is and, therefore, whether a person may be held liable for an injury he or she has caused. Legal injuries are not limited to physical injuries. They may also include emotional, economic, or reputational injuries as well as violations of privacy, property, or constitutional rights. Tort cases therefore comprise such varied topics as auto accidents,false imprisonment, defamation, product liability(for defective consumer products), copyright infringement, and environmental pollution, among many others.

In much of the common law world, the most prominent tort liability is negligence. If the injured party can prove that the person believed to have caused the injury acted negligently, that is, without taking reasonable care to avoid injuring others-tort law will allow compensation.

Furthermore ,tort law also recognizes intentional torts, where a person has intentionally acted in a way that harms another, and “strict liability”or quasi-tort, which allows recovery under certain circumstances without the need to demonstrate negligence. Hence ,torts may be divided into Negligence, Intentional Torts, and Quasi-Torts.

2,Negligence

The standard action in tort is negligence. The tort of negligence provides a cause of action leading to damages, or to relief, in each case designed to protect legal rights, including those of personal safety, property , and, in some cases, intangible economic interests. Negligence actions include claims coming primarily from car accidents and personal injury accidents of many kinds, including clinical negligence, worker’s negligence and so forth . Product liability cases, such as those involving warranties, may or may not be considered negligence actions.

(1)”Snail Case”

Negligence is a tort which depends on the existence of a breaking of the duty of care owned by one person to another. One well-known case is Donoghue v. Stevenson where Mrs. Donoghue consumed part of a drink containing a decomposed snail while in a public bar in Paisley, Scotland and claimed that it had made her ill. The snail had not been visible,as the bottle of beer in which it was contained was opaque. Neither the friend who bought the bottle for her, nor the shopkeeper who sold it, were aware of the snail’s presence. The manufacturer was Mr. Stevenson, whom Mrs. Donoghue sued for damages for negligence. She could not sue Mr.Stevenson for damages for breach of contract because there was no contract between them. Lord MacMillan thought this should be treated as a new product liability case. Lord Atkin argued that we owe a duty of reasonable care to our neighbors. He quoted the Bible in support of his argument, specifically the general principle that”thou shalt love thy neighbor.”(2)Elements of negligence

Negligence is a breach of legal duty to take care resulting in damages to the plaintiff. The legal burden of proving elements of negligence falls upon the plaintiff. The elements in determining the liability for negligence are:

a)The tortfeasor owed a duty of care;

b)There was a breach of that duty;

c)The tortfeasor directly caused the injury, that is, there was proximate cause;

d)The plaintiff suffered damage as a result of that breach.

【强烈推荐】三年级语文常用关联词总结(精华)

三年级语文常用关联词总结(精华) 1并列句。 各分句间的关系是平行并列的,如:“这衣裳既漂亮,又大方。” 常用的关联词语有:又……又……、既……又……、一边……一边……、那么……那么……、是……也是……、不是……而是……等。 2承接句。 各分句表示连续发生的事情或动作,分句有先后顺序,如:“看了他的示范动作后,我就照着样子做。 常用的关联词语有:……接着……、……就……、……于是……、……又……等。 3递进句。 分句间是进一层的关系,如:“海底不但景色奇异,而且物产丰富。”常用的关联词语有:不但……而且……、不仅……还……。 4选择句。各分句列出几种情况,表示从中选出一种,如:“我们下课不是跳橡皮筋,就是踢毽子。” 常用的关联词语有:不是……就是……、或者……或者……、是……还是……、要么……要么……、宁可……也不……、与其……不如……等。 5转折句。后一个分句与前一个分句的意思相反或相对,或部分相反。如:“虽然天气已晚,但是老师仍在灯下伏案工作。” 常用的关联词语有:虽然……但是……、尽管……可是……、……然而……、……却……等。 6因果句。 分句间是原因和结果的关系,如:“因为这本书写得太精彩了,所以大家都喜欢看。” 常用的关联词语有:因为……所以……既然……就……、之所以……是因为……等。 7假设句。 一个分句表示假设的情况,另一个分句表示假设实现后的结果。如:“如果明天下雨,运动会就不举行了。”

常用的关联词语有:如果……就……、即使……也……等。 8条件句。 一个分句说明条件,另一个分句表示在这一个条件下产生的结果,如:“只要我们努力,成绩就会不断地提高。” 常用的关联词语有:只要……就……、无论(不管、不论)……也(都)……、只有……才……、凡是……都……、除非……才……等。 (一)选择填空: 只要……就……因为……所以……不但……而且……尽管……可是……不是……就是…… 宁可……也不…… 1.气垫船()能在水上航行,()能在雪地和沼泽上航行。

方志平主观题考前3页纸(妙记民法重点法条序号和内容)(5)

方志平民法主观题考前3页纸 妙记民法重点法条序号和内容 1、《民法总则》119、《合同法》8,依法成立合同对当事人有法律拘束力。对119说吧,打了119就必须有效力有责任,不能乱拨119电话说话。 2、《民法总则》121,学雷锋。《合同法》121,因第三人原因违约。《担保法解释》121,定金20%。(121,学雷锋,去违约,交定金) 3、《民法总则》122,学雷锋之后,马上就不当得利了,121之后的122。 4、《民法总则》143,民事法律行为有效三要件,要是有3项,就生效了,故143。 5、《民法总则》146,双方通谋的虚伪表示无效,你个感情的骗子,要死咯,146(或意识流) 6、《民法总则》147,重大误解(你死去,147,误解我);148欺诈;149第三人欺诈。(要是将789误会为798,北京有个798艺术工厂)(误解147要死妻;欺诈148要死爸;第三人欺诈149要死舅舅) 7、《民法总则》153,违反公序良俗民事法律行为无效。143提倡公序良俗,153违反了公序良俗。 8、《民法总则》158,附生效条件的民事法律行为,自条件成就时生效。咱们谈恋爱是否有效,要我爸(158)确认一下才行,是附生效条件的。或者,我条件很好,要了我吧,158。 9、《民法总则》171,无权代理,没有权限还给人无权代理,是脑子有病,要吃药=171。然后《民法总则》172就是表见代理了。 10、《民法总则》178,一起吧,连带责任。有人和我一起还债吧。《物权法》102,共有物对外连带责任,1人2责。 11、《民法总则》186,加害给付,民法主观案例书中女朋友酒精加火锅,186帅男友被烧伤了!《物权法》186,这个好物件,就这样流押了……《物权法》211,流质条款,将儿子送去211高校“流质”。或者,211,一“流质”量的大学。 12、《民法总则》196,不动产和登记动产不适用诉讼时效。186的帅男友毁容了,196的帅男友一直都是我的,没有时间限制。———————————————————————————————————————13、《合同法》13、14,要约承诺,一生一世。《物权法》23、24,手表汽车,动产和特殊动产物权变动。《合同法》73、74,代位撤销。《合同法》83、84,债权转让。 14、《合同法》28,超过要约有效期承诺,为新要约。28岁的时候博士毕业,重新找工作,向用人单位发出新要约。 15、《合同法》42,缔约过失责任。4月1日愚人节欺诈缔约,4月2日知道真相,缔约过失责任。 16、《合同法》51条、《买卖合同解释》3、《物权法》106,结合武夷山,一栋楼。无权处分武夷山,一栋楼善意取得。所以,联合起来写超级牛逼,根据《合同法》第51条、《买卖合同解释》第3条和《物权法》第106条……如此牛逼,你不过谁过?当然我记513是我要小三,记住了这个序号。 17、《物权法解释一》21,无权处分不能有致命瑕疵;《担保法》21,担保主债权范围包括主债权各种。《房屋租赁解释》21,侵犯承租人优先购买权不得主张诉买卖无效。袁世凯签订了21条,丧权辱国,无权处分有致命瑕疵,处分的是广大中国土地,侵犯了中国老百姓的优先购买权。 18、《合同法解释二》15,一物多卖,多重买卖,一物,就是15。是在《合同法解释二》中,因为是对合同法总论的解释,解决违约责任问题,未解决多个买方要求继续履行的排队问题,这个问题在《买卖合同解释》解决了。 19、《买卖合同解释》9,普通动产多卖,交钱先,卖的是猫,猫有9条命。

关联词

2009——2010学年度第一学期四年级语文关联词语练习(一) 任凭……也……无论……也……既……又…… 即使……也……如果……就……非……不可…… 1.青草丛中隐藏着一条倾斜的隧道,(即使)有骤雨,这里(也)立刻就会干的。 2.蟋蟀钻在土地上干活,(如果)感到疲劳,它(就)在未完工的家门口休息一会儿,头朝着外面,触须轻微地摆动。 3.(任凭)谁怎么呼唤,它(也)不肯回来。 4.它若是不高兴啊,(无论)谁说多少好话,它(也)一声不出。 5.它屏息凝视,一连就是几个钟头,(非)把老鼠等出来(不可)。 6.满月的小猫(既)淘气(又)可爱。 虽然……但……只要……就……不仅……而且…… 一……就……只有……才……无论……都…… 1.我(一)进公园,(就)拿着买好的面包向养狗熊的地方跑去。 2.你让狗熊敬礼可不那么容易,(只有)你给它吃的,它(才)给你敬一个。 3.母鸡的叫声顶尖锐,顶凄惨,(无论)多么贪睡的人(都)得起来看看,是不是有了黄鼠狼。 4.(虽然)象是陆地上最大的动物,(但)却并非是最凶猛的动物。 5.(只要)人惧怕的,人(就)慑服之,视为“王”。 6.兵马俑(不仅)规模宏大(而且)类型众多,个性鲜明。 只要……就……虽然……却……不仅……还…… 如果……就……只有……才…… 1.(只有)主任下达“同意”的指令后,大门(才)会打开。 2.主人在睡觉前,(只要)按一下开关,整栋房子(就)进入“休息状态”。 3.科学( 不仅)在改变着人类的精神文化生活,(而且)在改变着人类的物质文化生活。 4.(如果)电脑确认你是“未经登记”的陌生人,它(就)不会打开大门。 5.我( 虽然)未见叶老先生的面,(却)从他的批改中感受到他的认真、平和以及温暖,如春风拂面。 不但……而且……虽然……但是……只有……才…… 一……就……如果……就……因为……所以…… 1.(一)到夜晚,整个香港(就)成了灯的海洋。 2.(如果)别处都有搭石,唯独这一处没有,人们(就)会谴责这里的人懒惰。 3.《飞向蓝天的恐龙》这篇课文的语言(不但)准确,(而且)非常生动。 4.(只有)下一番功夫,(才)能得到优异的成绩。 5.今天早晨(虽然)下着大雨,(但是)我们班的同学没有一个迟到的。 6.(因为)在辽宁西部首次发现了保存有羽毛痕迹的恐龙化石,(所以)科学家们欣喜若狂。 即使……也……既……也……如果……就…… 要是……就……不光……还……因为……所以…… 1.爬山虎的脚(要是)没触着墙,不几天(就)萎了。 2.它的出名(不光)由于它的唱歌,(还)由于它的住宅。 3.( 因为)蟋蟀建造住宅的工具是那样柔弱,(所以)人们对它的劳动成果感到惊奇。 4.(即使)在冬天,只要气候温和,太阳晒到它住宅的门口,(也)可以看见蟋蟀从里面不断地抛出泥土来。 5.一种叫中龙的爬行动物,(既)见于巴西东部,(也)见于非洲西南部。

小学三年级关联词合集

转折关系中的关联词有: 虽然……但是、虽然……可是、尽管……还。 我(虽然)知道这件事情,(但是)并不了解事情的全过程。李老师(虽然)身体不好,(但是)一直坚持给我们上课。现在我们的生活水平(虽然)有了提高,(但是)还要注意节 约。 弟弟(虽然)年纪小,(但)很懂事。 因果关系中的关联词有: 因为……所以、既然……就、之所以……是因为。 { (因为)长城是那样雄伟壮丽,(所以)吸引了很多游客。(因为)他热情地为同学们服务,(所以)受到同学们的好评。小李在学习上(之所以)有这么好的成绩,是(因为)他平时 刻苦学习的结果。 江涛(因为)刻苦学习,(所以)学习成绩一直保持优秀。(因为)他真正下了苦功,(所以)成绩有了很大的提高。

(因为)我的身体不好,(所以)我要参加体育锻炼。 条件关系中的关联词有: 只有……才、只要……就 { (只有)从小学好本领,(才)更好地为国家建设出力。 我们现在(只有)好好学习,将来(才)能担当起建设祖国的 重任。 (只要)刻苦地钻研,(就)能掌握科学技术。 (只要)在社会主义新中国,少年儿童(就)能过上幸福的生 活。 (只要)人人都献出一点爱,世界(就)会变成美好的人间。 (只要)多读多练,(就)会提高作文水平。 (不管)风浪再大,我(都)要把你送过河去。 (不管)石块有多重,小草(都)要从下面钻出来。 ( 递进关系中的关联词有:

不但……还、不仅……还、不但……而且。 鲁迅(不仅)是伟大的教育家,(还)是伟大的思想家。王老师(不但)关心我们的学习,(而且)关心我们的身体。 我们的教室(不但)宽敞(而且)明亮。 他干的活(不但)速度快,(而且)质量好。 这艘轮船(不但)载客多,(而且)速度非常快。 他(不但)学习和品德都很好,(而且)身体也很好。 ^ 假设关系中的关联词有: 如果……就、要是……就、即使……也。 (如果)你答应找小兰一起去看画展,(就)应该准时去找他。(如果)没有老师的耐心教育和帮助,我(就)不会有这么大 的进步 (如果)明天下雨,我们(就)下个星期再去游乐园吧。既……又……

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