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泛读教程第四册Personal Names中文

泛读教程第四册Personal Names中文
泛读教程第四册Personal Names中文

人名

乔治·斯提沃特

你知道美国人取名习惯主要的传统来源吗?印第安人和黑人是如何获得自己的姓氏的?为什么移民要采用美国化的姓名?下面的文字讨论这些问题。

在任何民族的人类学研究中,取名的习俗往往非常重要,而且包含许多内容。因此,我们很可以对美国人的取名习俗作一番研究。

名字是语言的一部分,然而,由于它们代表的是非常特殊的一部分,我们无法将其归入一般的讨论中。特别是,后来移民的影响和原来习俗的发展变化,对我们的名字来说已经比一般的语言更重要了。

和许多其它习俗一样,我们取名的习惯承袭了英国传统,尽管和整个欧洲的习俗也差别不大。根据英国的传统,一个人的名字由两部分组成:名和姓,名在前姓在后。这一传统形成于中世纪,远远早于美国的任何殖民地形成之前。国王和贵族,偶尔某些级别较低的人,可以有不止一个名。在移民到美国来的人的孩子中,后来被称做“中间名”的,已很少见,几乎消失了。可以举出的这样的例子非常少,其中一个奇怪地叫做爱德华· 玛利亚·英费尔德,是詹姆斯镇第一任地方议会的主席。

由于从一开始移民们就有姓氏,而姓氏是继承的,早期的殖民者只不过保留他们已有的姓,对此没有多少可说。然而人们提出了这样的问题,是不是所有早期的英国移民实际上都有姓?有这样的疑问,是因为在詹姆斯镇最早的名单中,有“老爱德华”这样的名字。情况很可能是,他确实有一个姓,只不过由于疏忽从名单上略去,而在他死后也就被人遗忘。当时更经常的情况是,人们登记的是自己的姓。例如在詹姆斯镇1608年的一张名单中,甚至有两个男孩登记为米尔曼和赫尔亚德,而不是用他们的名。很可能是,一些英国流浪者,特别是那些没有合法出身的人来到美国,却没有或者不知道自己的姓。如果这样,他们必须很快起一个平常的姓,不带有任何特殊的美国味道。

在我们这片土地上,唯一必须有姓的两大民族是印第安人和黑人。印第安人通常只有一个名字,往往很长,描述又很详细。然而他们也倾向于接受欧洲的取名习惯和其它习俗。如果一个印第安人皈依了基督教,他会取一个受洗名或教名,然后把原有的名当作姓。这样我们就可以理解凯莱· 奇沙特马奇这样一个名字。他1665年毕业于哈佛大学,次年去世。但很多印第安人只起普通的美国姓。如果我们看到吉姆· 索波或伊莱·塞缪尔·帕克上校这样的名字,我们很难从名字上判断他们是印第安人。后来,当然早先也是,很多印第安人把自己的名字翻译成英语,有时以简化的形式出现。一旦经过翻译和简化,原本具色彩丰富的名字就变得普通了。例如,一个印第安人的名字意思是“说话的乌鸦”(Talking-Crow),他把自己的名字翻译成英语,受洗为“约翰”,这样,他的名字就变成约翰·托金·克劳(John Talking Crow)。而他的儿子可能只是威廉姆· 克劳,在一份名单上同其他有同样姓的英国人没有什么差别。一个叫作詹姆斯·奈特-沃克夜行者(James Night-Walker)的印第安人就变成了詹姆斯· 奈特·沃克(James Knight Walker)。不幸的是,总的来说,这些独具特色的印第安名正在消失。

黑人从非洲来的时候根本没有相当于姓的东西。当奴隶时他们也不需要姓。作为法定的奴隶,他们不能选举,无权签定合同,不能在法庭上作证,或做任何需要有全名的事。由于他们居住的社

区小,也就不需要有两个名来加以区别。可以叫他们的名、绰号、或者加上某些特征的名,例如“老乔”,或“大杰克”。

如果黑人在自由前不需要姓的话,那么在获得自由后,他们肯定象其他人一样取一个姓。事实上,我们可以说他们是要取一个太“象其他人一样”的姓,因此,他们放弃使用自己丰富的想象力,来采用那些最常见的姓。于是,约翰逊是最常见的黑人姓,其后是布郎,史密斯和琼斯。黑人们似乎要取一个最不引人注意的姓,来抹杀自己的存在。过去认为黑人用的是自己主人的姓的说法,似乎站不住脚,因为事实证明拥有大量奴隶的家族的姓并没有成为黑人中的常见姓。

尽管我们还没有什么可以称作是具有独特美国创造性的取姓方法,某种创造性过程一直在发挥作用,通过事实上一切可能想象的巨大变化,来用新名字代替旧名字。因此,我们就有了一些似乎只有在美国有,欧洲没有的姓。例如,优克姆(Yokum),莱格利(Legree),古雪(Goochey),和洛弗威尔(Lovewear)。学者只有经过仔细的研究才能发现,这些特殊的姓来源于德国或法国姓乔奇姆(Joachim),莱格尔(Legare),古西亚(Gauthier),和洛弗伊(Lovoie)。同样,人们经常把很长的外国姓缩短,变成在原来的国家可能从来没有过的姓。卡劳格洛普洛斯(Calogropoulos)变成了卡劳亚(Caloyer),卡利亚果斯基(Kalliokowski)变成了卡利奥(Kallio),尼恩尼内(Nieninen)变成了涅尼(Nieni)。人们也使用翻译的方法。翻译的结果通常没什么新意。辛莫曼(Zimerman,木匠)变成了卡朋特(Carpenter,木匠),杰格(Jaeger, 猎人)变成了亨特(Hunter,猎人)。然而如果半用翻译的方法,半用发音的方法的话,结果就会是一个全新的姓,例如,布雷特曼(Breitman)变成了布莱特曼(Brightman)。

移民们起一个美国化或半美国化的姓是一个典型的现象。有时,这是由于想摆脱和外国背景联系产生的现实存在的或想象的污点。有时纯粹是由于有一个不同寻常的姓太麻烦所致。而有时,特别是早些时候,只是因为人们不知道或者不在意姓的拼写,就发生了这样的事情。移民们的取名,同黑人取名一样,一般来说趋向于一致。不管他是想隐遁于人群中,或是想成为集体的一员,常常是取一个普通的姓。由于这个原因,用传统英国姓称呼的人的人数比例上升了。

另一方面,这种趋向一致的过程并没有使大量的姓消失,也没有减少英国或其他国家姓的数量。很多姓缪勒(Mueller)的德国人改成了米勒(Miller),但很多人仍然姓缪勒,另有一些人则选用穆勒(Muller)的形式。结果是这三种姓在美国都有。

艾尔斯顿 C. 史密斯在《名字的故事》一书中,仔细地研究了美国姓氏的总数。他估计,在芝加哥市电话簿中有154750个姓。这个数字包括拼写不同的姓。他进而估算出,全美国一定会有350000个不同的姓。即使我们把这个数字除以三,以排除掉那些只是拼写不同的姓,这仍然是一个庞大的数字。

相比之下,美国人在起名时要比对待他们的姓表现出多得多的创造性。这可以看成是理所当然的事情。绝大多数情况下,一个人把自己的姓原封不动地传给孩子,根本不考虑是否可能要改变。但人们,通常是父母,总是要为每一个孩子起一个独特的名子。他们通常会起一个传统的名,有时也会“造”一个。然而,即使是传统的名,历史的仓库也塞满了成千上万个例子,选择的问题就几乎是创造。因此,美国人的姓经久不变,代代相传,名却跟随时尚潮流而变化,而在一个世纪过程中,一个社区的“取名模式”会发生很大的变化。

我们关于名的历史可以追溯到1587年罗利开创的殖民地,尽管它后来消亡了,没有留下后代。在那99名男子和少年中,最多的名是约翰(23个),托马斯(15个),威廉姆(10个),亨利(7个),理查德(7个),乔治(3个)和罗伯特(3个)。在这同一个殖民地中,我们只有16个女性的名保存下来,这个数目太少,无法进行科学的统计。其中没有玛丽这个名,但有三个珍妮,两个伊丽莎白。其它的名也很常见,象阿格尼斯,伊莲娜,玛格丽特,和罗丝。

这样,我们现在就必须回过来从这些男子的名中推测当时的取名模式。在这些第一代殖民者中,所有较常见的名都是英国传统的。约翰和托马斯都来源于希伯来语,取自《圣经》。约翰来自受人爱戴的信徒,几个世纪以来这个名在基督教世界一直很受欢迎。托马斯也是一个信徒的名,由于坎特伯雷的殉教者圣托马斯,它自12世纪起就成为一个流行的英国名。威廉姆、亨利、理查德和罗伯特都是日尔曼人名,诺曼征服者使之在英国流行。除了罗伯特外,它们都曾是英国国王的名,这也许促使了它们的流行。乔治是一个希腊名,它能够流行是因为自14世纪以来圣徒乔治就被认为是英国的保护神。这种取名的英国传统在南部的殖民地保持了一个多世纪——可以补充说,不论是用作男名还是女名都是如此。

一种更为特别的美国式发展,起源于新英格兰的清教徒殖民地。最初,起名的方式同南部移民没有什么差别,抵达马萨诸塞的移民中最常见的名依次是:约翰,威廉,托马斯,理查德,罗伯特,爱德华,塞缪尔,乔治,詹姆斯和弗朗西斯。

取自《旧约》的唯一的名塞缪尔的出现,使这个名单不同于南部的名单,具有一点《旧约》味。然而北部移民的后代们却有很不一样的名。取自《圣经》的名大大增加,特别是那些《旧约》中很受欢迎的人物的名。1640到1699年间出生在波士顿的男孩的名中,约翰仍然是最流行的。但以下依次是:塞缪尔,约瑟夫,托马斯,纳撒尼尔,本杰明,詹姆斯,乔纳森,威廉和理查德。处于前8位的名都取自于《圣经》,而一度很流行的威廉和理查德被挤到了第九和第十位。其次十个名更能说明《旧约》的影响:大卫,雅各布,约书亚,以撒克,彼德,埃比尼泽,伊弗雷姆,爱德华,亚伯拉罕和丹尼尔。

至于女性,使用传统的但非《圣经》的名,象琼,阿格尼斯和玛格丽特等减少,有的甚至完全消失。17世纪出生在波士顿的女孩,通常起的名依次是:玛丽,伊丽莎白,萨拉,汉娜,艾比盖尔,吕贝卡,露丝,丽迪娅,安娜和玛莎。这些都是《圣经》中的名,其中四个来自《旧约》。一些传统的流行名出现在后十位,有安,玛格丽特,乔安娜,还有珍妮,同梅海塔布尔,苏珊娜,黛博拉,贝瑟尔,雷切尔,和多加这些名排列在一起。

在清教徒殖民地里,常见的女名还有那些关于抽象品质的“有意义”的名,约占15%。其中,梅茜(Mercy, 仁慈)是最普遍的,其它还有贝雪丝(Patience, 忍耐),萨克弗(Thankful, 感恩),笛萨尔(Desire, 渴望),以克佩里丝(Experience, 经验),查里提(Charity, 慈善),荷蒲(Hope, 希望),格雷丝(Grace, 优雅)等。象格雷丝(优雅)这样的名,用的是精神和神学的意义,而不是体态的意义。一些名要当作动词而不是名词来理解,可以看成是代表某个宗教教训,例如,“渴望精神才能”(Desire spiritual gifts)。同样的情况也出现在男名中,不过不太多,有:英克莱斯(Increase,增加),荷蒲弗(Hope-for,希望),康斯坦丁(Constant, 坚决),特莱普尔(Tremble, 颤抖),洛弗(Love, 爱),莱塞林(Wrestling, 搏斗)等。在这些取自《圣经》的名中,最有趣的是埃比尼泽。这是《旧约》中的一个地名,最初用作人名似乎是在新英格兰。在那里,一个多世纪以来,它成为最常见的名之一。

尽管越来越多地使用《旧约》或“有意义的”名也是英格兰清教主义的一个特点,然而这在新英格兰更为流行。这种习俗由于移民的迁徙从殖民地流传开来,我们的历史上就有人有这样丰富多彩的名,如:英克莱斯,伊斯雷尔,扎卡里,亚伯拉罕,普里瑟弗德和甘梅利尔。它影响了我们

的民族传奇,使“乔纳森大哥”成为我们新英格兰人甚至美国人的名子,“萨姆大叔”(Uncle Sam)代表美国(U. S.),还给了我们“凯莱布”(犹太人的首领,与约书亚一起被上帝遣往迦南),或“老伊弗莱姆”(《圣经》中约瑟的次子,以色列王国)这样的名子。

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