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土木工程英文文献及翻译

土木工程英文文献及翻译
土木工程英文文献及翻译

Civil engineering

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like bridges, roads, canals, dams, and buildings.[1][2][3] Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,[4] and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.[5] It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering,[4] surveying, and construction engineering.[6] Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.

History of the civil engineering profession

See also: History of structural engineering

Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.

Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.[7]The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), the

Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[6] and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.

In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.[5]The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[4][6]In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.

In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:

the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.[8] The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[9] The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[10] The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch

in 1905.

History of civil engineering

Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.[12]

One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.[13]

Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, though some universities designate the degree as a Bachelor of Science. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the

sub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.[14]While an

Undergraduate (BEng/BSc) Degree will normally provide successful students with industry accredited qualification, some universities offer postgraduate engineering awards (MEng/MSc) which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest within engineering.[15]

In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). There are international engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders.

The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.".[16]This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act.[17]In other countries, no such legislation exists. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.[18] In this way, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, the

charge of criminal negligence.[citation needed] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.

Careers

There is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most people who graduate with civil engineering degrees start with jobs that require a low level of responsibility, and as the new engineers prove their competence, they are trusted with tasks that have larger consequences and require a higher level of responsibility. However, within each branch of civil engineering career path options vary. In some fields and firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers perform the more routine tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. Experienced engineers generally do more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including forensic engineering.

In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to

residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction

翻译:

土木工程

土木工程是一个专业的工程学科,包括设计,施工和维护与环境的改造,涉及了像桥梁,道路,河渠,堤坝和建筑物工程交易土木工程是最古老的军事工程后,工程学科,它被定义为区分军事工程非军事工程的学科它传统分解成若干子学科包括环境工程,岩土工程,结构工程,交通工程,市或城市工程,水资源工程,材料工程,海岸工程,勘测和施工工程等土木工程的范围涉及所有层次:从市政府到国家,从私人部门到国际公司。

历史土木工程专业

自从有了人类,土木工程便进入到了我们的日常生活。土木工程最早的追溯在公元前2000年至4000的古埃及和美索不达米亚(古伊拉克)。当人们开始放弃了游牧的存在,从而造成了对栖身地的需要和。在此期间,交通变得越来越重要,导致车轮和帆船的发展。

直到近代也不存在土木工程与建筑明显的区别,以及长期工程师和建筑师,主要指的是同一个人,通常可以互换使用。在埃及建造金字塔(公元前大约二七零零年至2500年)可能被视为第一个大型结构建筑实例。其他古代历史土木工程建设包括古代希腊帕台农神庙的Iktinos(447-438年),由罗马工程师亚壁古道(公元前312年)设计,再如由秦始皇下令,蒙恬将军负责建造的中国长城。以及古代斯里兰卡建造像Jetavanaramaya和广泛的灌溉佛塔工程阿努拉德普勒。罗马帝国在其整个开发土木结构,特别是包括渡槽,insulae,港口,桥梁,堤坝和道路。

在18世纪,这个词土木工程是杜撰把所有的东西平民而不是军事工程[5]第一个自称约翰Smeaton土木工程师是修建了埃迪斯通灯塔Smeaton 1771年和他的一些同事形成了土木Smeatonian学会,他们是在吃饭时结识的。虽然有一些技术会议的证据,它只不过是一个社会的社会。

1818年英国土木工程师学会成立于伦敦,并在1820年著名的工程师托马斯德福成为它的第一位会长。该机构在1828年获得皇家宪章,正式承认作为一个专业的土木工程。其章程规定民用建筑工程为:利用自然使人方便,作为生产和贩运国家都对外部和内部的贸易,如道路,桥梁,沟渠,运河的建设应用,手段,艺

术,内河航运和码头内部往来和交流,并在港口,码头,鼹鼠,防波堤和灯塔的建设,并在航行为商业目的人工力量的艺术,在建筑和机械的应用,而在城市和

城镇排水

第一个民办高校任教的美国诺威治大学土木工程是在1819年由船长奥尔登鹧鸪。[9]在土木工程中的美国第一学位是由伦斯勒理工学院于1835年颁发。第一个这样的荣誉,被美国康奈尔大学在1905年和诺拉斯坦顿布拉奇颁发给一名女子。

土木工程历史

土木工程是物理和科学原理的应用,它的历史是错综复杂的联系,在整个历史上的物理学和数学的认识的进步。由于土木工程是一个广泛的行业,包括几个独立的专门的子学科,它的历史与知识结构,材料科学,地理,地质,土壤,水文,环境,机械等领域。

纵观历史上最古老的和中世纪的建筑设计和施工进行了如石匠和木匠手艺,上升到建筑师的作用。知识被保留在很少的行会,进步甚微。构筑物,道路和基础设施的存在是重复的,并在规模上升的增量

对科学的态度,以物理和数学问题,适用于民用建筑工程的最早的例子之一是在公元前3世纪阿基米德的工作,包括阿基米德的原则,这巩固了我们的浮力的认识,如阿基米德螺旋切实可行的解决方案。Brahmagupta,印度数学家,用在公元7世纪的算术,对印度教阿拉伯数字基础的开挖(体积)计算,

土木工程师通常拥有一个在民用工程专业学位。该研究为这种程度的长度通常是三至五年,并已完成的程度,通常作为指定的工学学士,虽然一些大学指定为理学学士的学位。程度一般包括单位覆盖物理,数学,项目管理,设计和土木工程的特定主题。最初等议题涵盖了大多数,如果不是全部,土木工程的子学科。学生然后选择一个或多个分学科专业走向结束的程度,而本科(学士/理学士)学位,通常会提供业界认可的资格成功的学生,一些大学提供研究生工程奖(孟/ MSC),使学生进一步在其感兴趣的特定领域内的工程专业

在大多数国家,学士学位的工程学士学位代表对专业认证的第一步和学位课程本身是由专业机构认证。在完成学位课程认证工程师认证之前,必须满足一定要求的范围(包括工作经验和考试要求)。一旦认证,工程师指定的专业工程师(在美国,加拿大和南非),英国特许工程师(在大多数英联邦国家),特许专业工程师(在澳大利亚和新西兰),或欧洲工程师称号(在多欧洲联盟)。有相关专

业机构之间的国际工程其目的是为了让工程师执业跨越国际边界的协定。

认证的优势在不同的位置而有所不同。例如,在美国和加拿大的“只有持牌工程师可能准备,签署和盖章,并提交工程计划和图纸到审批公权力,或密封的公共和私人客户工程工作。”这要求强制执行国家和省,如魁北克的工程师法在其他国家,没有这样的法律存在立法。在澳大利亚,国家的工程师授权仅限于昆士兰州。几乎所有的认证机构保持的道德规范,他们希望所有成员遵守这样,这些组织在维护职业道德标准的重要作用。即使在司法管辖区认证,很少或没有工作的法律关系,工程师受合同法。在这种情况下,一个工程师的工作失败,他或她可能受到过失侵权和在极端情况下,刑事过失负责。一个工程师的工作,还必须符合其他许多规则,如建筑法规规章和法律有关的环境法。

工作机会

没有一个典型的土木工程师的职业道路。大多数人谁土木工程学位与研究生开始与岗位需要的责任水平低,并作为新的工程师证明自己的能力,它们与任务有较大的影响,需要更高层次的责任信任。但是在每一个土木工程的职业道路的选择分支,因人而异。在一些领域和企业,入门级的工程师都投入到工作主要是在现场监督施工,而在另一些领域,入门级工程师进行分析比较常规任务或设计和解释。经验丰富的工程师一般都从事比较复杂的分析或设计工作,或更复杂的设计项目,或其他工程师的经营管理,或到专门的咨询服务,包括法医工程。分学科

一般来说,土木工程关注的是人类创造的固定项目,更大的世界整体界面。一般民用工程师与专业土木工程师和测量师紧密合作,以适应和服务于他们的特定的网站,社区和地形通过设计分级,排水,路面,供水,污水处理服务,电力供应和通讯,土地部门的固定项目。一般工程师花了很多时间,参观项目现场,发展社会的共识,并准备建设规划。一般民用工程也被称为网站工程,土木工程的分支,主要转换从一个使用的土地系到另一个重点。土木工程师通常适用于岩土工程,结构工程,环境工程,交通工程和建设工程的原则,住宅,商业,工业及公共工程的各种规模和水平的建设项目。

建筑类外文文献及中文翻译

forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.

土木工程外文文献及翻译

本科毕业设计 外文文献及译文 文献、资料题目:Designing Against Fire Of Building 文献、资料来源:国道数据库 文献、资料发表(出版)日期:2008.3.25 院(部):土木工程学院 专业:土木工程 班级:土木辅修091 姓名:武建伟 学号:2008121008 指导教师:周学军、李相云 翻译日期: 20012.6.1

外文文献: Designing Against Fire Of Buliding John Lynch ABSTRACT: This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electrical systems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are considered in the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed. 1 INTRODUCTION Other papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the

步进电机及单片机英文文献及翻译

外文文献: Knowledge of the stepper motor What is a stepper motor: Stepper motor is a kind of electrical pulses into angular displacement of the implementing agency. Popular little lesson: When the driver receives a step pulse signal, it will drive a stepper motor to set the direction of rotation at a fixed angle (and the step angle). You can control the number of pulses to control the angular displacement, so as to achieve accurate positioning purposes; the same time you can control the pulse frequency to control the motor rotation speed and acceleration, to achieve speed control purposes. What kinds of stepper motor sub-: In three stepper motors: permanent magnet (PM), reactive (VR) and hybrid (HB) permanent magnet stepper usually two-phase, torque, and smaller, step angle of 7.5 degrees or the general 15 degrees; reaction step is generally three-phase, can achieve high torque output, step angle of 1.5 degrees is generally, but the noise and vibration are large. 80 countries in Europe and America have been eliminated; hybrid stepper is a mix of permanent magnet and reactive advantages. It consists of two phases and the five-phase: two-phase step angle of 1.8 degrees while the general five-phase step angle of 0.72 degrees generally. The most widely used Stepper Motor. What is to keep the torque (HOLDING TORQUE) How much precision stepper motor? Whether the cumulative: The general accuracy of the stepper motor step angle of 3-5%, and not cumulative.

机械毕业设计英文外文翻译71车床夹具设计分析

附录A Lathe fixture design and analysis Ma Feiyue (School of Mechanical Engineering, Hefei, Anhui Hefei 230022, China) Abstract: From the start the main types of lathe fixture, fixture on the flower disc and angle iron clamp lathe was introduced, and on the basis of analysis of a lathe fixture design points. Keywords: lathe fixture; design; points Lathe for machining parts on the rotating surface, such as the outer cylinder, inner cylinder and so on. Parts in the processing, the fixture can be installed in the lathe with rotary machine with main primary uranium movement. However, in order to expand the use of lathe, the work piece can also be installed in the lathe of the pallet, tool mounted on the spindle. THE MAIN TYPES OF LATHE FIXTURE Installed on the lathe spindle on the lathe fixture

英文文献及翻译(计算机专业)

NET-BASED TASK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Hector Garcia-Molina, Jeffrey D. Ullman, Jennifer Wisdom ABSTRACT In net-based collaborative design environment, design resources become more and more varied and complex. Besides com mon in formatio n man ageme nt systems, desig n resources can be orga ni zed in connection with desig n activities. A set of activities and resources linked by logic relations can form a task. A task has at least one objective and can be broken down into smaller ones. So a design project can be separated in to many subtasks formi ng a hierarchical structure. Task Management System (TMS) is designed to break down these tasks and assig n certa in resources to its task no des. As a result of decompositi on. al1 desig n resources and activities could be man aged via this system. KEY WORDS : Collaborative Design, Task Management System (TMS), Task Decompositi on, In formati on Man ageme nt System 1 Introduction Along with the rapid upgrade of request for adva need desig n methods, more and more desig n tool appeared to support new desig n methods and forms. Desig n in a web en vir onment with multi-part ners being invo Ived requires a more powerful and efficie nt man ageme nt system .Desig n part ners can be located everywhere over the n et with their own organizations. They could be mutually independent experts or teams of tens of employees. This article discussesa task man ageme nt system (TMS) which man ages desig n activities and resources by break ing dow n desig n objectives and re-orga nizing desig n resources in conn ecti on with the activities. Compari ng with com mon information management systems (IMS) like product data management system and docume nt man ageme nt system, TMS can man age the whole desig n process. It has two tiers which make it much more flexible in structure. The lower tier con sists of traditi onal com mon IMSS and the upper one fulfills logic activity management through controlling a tree-like structure, allocating design resources and

土木工程外文文献翻译

专业资料 学院: 专业:土木工程 姓名: 学号: 外文出处:Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件:1.外文资料翻译译文;2.外文原文。

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不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反,有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了,然而,如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导,那么,得以发展的就只能是好的结构,并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何,要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计,两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论,但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低,中高度的建筑中常用的体系,它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系,或者和其他体系结合起来使用,以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑,可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系,这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS,STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地,由于柱梁节点固有柔性,并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点,所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然,在设计的后期阶段,实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强,在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色,它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑,并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。

at89c52单片机中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

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基于solidworks机床夹具设计外文翻译详解

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