第4讲 语境与选词

广西师范学院《英汉互译（一）》课程教案

编号: 15-4 开课单位：外语系授课教研室：翻译写作

课程名称：《英汉互译（一）》授课教师：唐旭光

教材：《新编英汉互译教程》，授课对象：06级英语专业2、3、5班

《英汉互译（一）》第四讲语境与选词

(Context and Wording in Translation)

1. Towards context

The concept “context”, since it was raised by the Polish anthropologist B. Malinowski in 1923, has drawn wide attention in many fields such as pragmatics, semantics, logics, anthropological linguistics, socio-linguistics, psycholinguistics, applied linguistics, etc. In the past twenty years, context has been the focus of attention in linguistics. Translation, either as an independent science or a branch of comparative linguistics, should draw on the wealth of context theories so that it may be further enriched and developed.

2. The various definitions of context by different scholars

1). Hu Zhuanglin (2001: 405-406) introduces Firth?s theory as follows:

(1) The internal relations of the text

(a) the syntagmatic relations between the elements in the structure;

(b) the paradigmatic relations between units in the system;

(2) The internal relations of the context of situation

(a) the relations between text and non-linguistic element, and their general effects;

(b) the analytical relations between “bits” and “pieces” of the text (words, parts of words, phrases) and the special elements within the situation (items, objects, persons, personalities, events).

Firth?s student M.A.K. Halliday made still further contribution to the study of context and put forward the notion “register” in 1964 (Wang Dechun, 1992: 129), which is a representation of the context of situation. Features of the context of situation include “things like what is going on, who is taking part, and what the speech act are designed to achieve”(Halliday, 1985: 365).

The three scholars formed the mainstream of London school, and their views on context are said to be static, for they failed to consider communication events in terms of the psychological environment of the speaker and hearer and neglected such personal factors such as the commun icators? experience, knowledge etc.

a more dynamic view

2). With the thrust of pragmatics, a more dynamic view of context emerged.

Mey, in his Pragmatics: An Introduction, defines context as: “Context is a dynamic, not a static concept: it is to be understood as the continually changing surroundings, in the widest sense, that enable the participants in the communication process to interact, and in which the linguistic expressions of their interaction become intelligible (1993, 2001: 39)”.

D. Sperber …s understanding

According to D. Sperber (1986, 2001: 15), a context is a psychological construct, a subset of the hearer?s assumptions about the world. It is these assumptions, of course, rather than the actual state of the world, that affect the interpretation of an utterance. A context in this sense is not limited to information about the immediate physical environment or the immediately preceding utterances: expectations about the future, scientific hypotheses or religious beliefs, anecdotal memories, general cultural assumptions, beliefs about the mental state of the speaker, may all play a role in interpretation.

The two linguists believe that context is a psychological construct that exists only in the hearer?s mind and is constantly changing. It is a variable.

Wang Jianping?s definition of context

3). The Chinese scholar Wang Jianping (1989: 24) gives a very good definition of context. He points out that context comprises those factors manifested as linguistic forms before or after a linguistic expression and those subjective or objective environmental factors on both of which a good grasp of the definite meaning of the linguistic expression depends during the process of communication.语境是人们在语言交际中理解和运用语言所依赖的各种表现为言辞的上下文或不表现为言辞的主观因素。

3. The functions of context: Restrictive and Interpretive Function

1). Restrictive Function

(1). First, let’s see how extra-lingual context restricts people’s way of using language.

The same animal “狗” in Chinese and “dog” in English have different associative and affective meanings in different cultures. In Chinese we have “狗腿子”, “狗头军师”, and “狗屁”. While western people often say “love me, love my dog”, “a lucky dog”, etc.

Restrictive Function(2)

(2). Next, let’s see how intra-lingual context realizes its restrictive function.

Saeed (1997,2000: 182-183) provides a good case in point, where the same text with different titles is understood in different ways.

A Prisoner Plans His Escape

Rock slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape. He hesitated a moment and thought. Things were not going well. What bothered him was being held, especially since the charge against him had been weak. He considered his present situation. The lock that held him was strong, but he thought he could break it.

To be understood in different way for the change of the title:

A Wrestler in a Tight Corner

Rock slowly got up from the mat, planning his escape. He hesitated a moment and thought. Things were not going well. What bothered him was being held, especially since the charge against him had been weak. He considered his present situation. The lock that held him was strong, but he thought he could break it.

2). Interpretive function

(1). First, we will see how intra-lingual context realizes the interpretive function. The word “quick” has many senses. But in the following two sentences, its meaning is definite.

a. He has a quick ear for music.

b. Taxis are quicker than buses.

(2). Para-lingual context also helps to narrow down the meaning of an utterance.

Niu and Chen (1999: 33) give an example to illustrate how intonation helps the interpretation of utterances.

A: It?s lovely weather, isn?t it?

B: Lovely weather, isn?t it?

According to the two authors, if B answers the question with a rising tone, it means B takes a fancy and wants to continue talking with A; if B answers with a falling tone, then probably B is interested in the conversation and wants to end it as soon as possible.

The definition of translation context

Translation context (TC) involves various factors manifested as linguistic forms and subjective and objective factors in both the source language society and culture and target language society and culture that affect the translator?s com prehension of the SLT and reproduction of the SLT in the TLT.

4. Wording in translation

According to Illustrated Oxford Dictionary(1999:961), wording refers to: a form of words used; the way in which something is expressed. In this section, by referring to the above two definitions, we prefer to define wording as: (1). selected words in texts; (2). exact choice and meaning of words used in texts. Why is wording in translation chosen as the focus of study here?

Just as Halliday points out, “a text is a semantic unit, not a grammatical one…

meanings are realized through wordings; and without a theory of wordings…there is no way of making explicit one?s interpretation of the meaning of a text” (2000: 43). So in translation of a sentence, paragraph, or text, comprehension of words always goes as the first step. Translators abandon literal translation only when there are special reasons to do so. Mona Baker holds the same opinion, “ Text is a meaning unit, not a form unit, but meaning is realized through form and without understanding the meanings of individual forms one cannot interpret the meaning of the text as a whole” (1992, 2000: 6).

The second reason is that, as Peter Newmark in A Textbook of Translation states, “the chief difficulties in translating are lexical, not grammatical”(1988: 32), and indeed, most of the mistakes made in translation are lexical rather than grammatical.

To achieve adequate comprehension of wording in the SLT and reproduce it in the TLT, it is necessary to look into the theory of word meaning.

Word meaning is the most fluid, while textual meaning is the most definite.

5. Classification of the word meaning

Seven types of meaning listed by Leech:

1). Conceptual meaning, 概念意义

2). Associative meaning 联想意义

(1)Connotative meaning, 内涵

(2)Social meaning, 社会

(3)Affective meaning, 情感

(4)Reflected meaning, 反映

(5) Collocative meaning), 搭配

3）Thematic meaning. 主题意义

6. Wording across languages: Disparities between languages

What translators are concerned with is largely the difference of meaning aspect of the word between English and Chinese.

Baker (1992, 2000: 21-26) lists eleven kinds of disparities between word-meanings among languages:

1).cultural specific concepts;

2). the source-language concept is not lexicalized in the target language;

3). the source-language word is semantically complex;

4). the source and target language make different distinctions in meaning;

5). the target language lacks a super-ordinate;

6). the target language lacks a specific term ;

7). difference in physical or interpersonal perspective;

8). differences in expressive meaning;

9). differences in form;

10). differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms;

11). the use of loan words in the source text.

7. Three kinds of discrepancies betweeen English and Chinese words

1). Partial correspondence.

The meaning of a word in Chinese may be narrower or wider than its corresponding word in English. This covers what Baker lists as 4), 5), 6), 7), 8).

English kinship words make no difference between paternal and maternal side, while Chinese kinship terms pay great attention to that. E.g. aunt 姑姑，姨妈，舅妈，伯母，婶子等. Now compare such words as: exclaim 大声说; blurt 脱口而出; stammer 吞吞吐吐地说; whisper 悄声说; ejaculate 突然说; mumble 含糊地说. Chinese has the general word “说”, but no specific words denoting all these different kinds of “说”. English has various kinds of “say”, each should be replaced by a Chinese word plus a pre-modifier.

2). No corresponding words can be found between English and Chinese.

This equals what Baker lists as 1), 2) and 3). English and Chinese are both languages rich in culture. Many words are culture-loaded, e.g. with rich cultural background. The cultural meaning of English words, according to He Shanfen (何善芬，2002: 122-125), mainly comes from their religion, myth, literary works, some historical events, customs, geographical facts, life style, ideology, etc. These are para-lingual and extra-lingual context bound. Also, there are some new terms created in English which have not yet found any corresponding words in Chinese, such as “mascon” (mass concentration: 月球表层下高密度的物质聚积) and beddo （一种多用途的床).

3). Polysemous words in English, each sense matching a corresponding word in Chinese.

This phenomenon is very common and we can come across it wherever translation takes place and no illustration is needed. One thing we have to note is that since most words are polysemous and a single word just provides a range of possibilities for one to choose, then why does one choose the particular meaning of a particular word in the SL text, and how can the translator reproduce it? The key to these questions is the contexts.

8. Intra-lingual context and wording

The intra-lingual context is classified into three subtypes: lexical context, sentential context and discourse context. Lexical context encompasses the syntagmatic relation of collocation and the paradigmatic relation of choice of words. Sentential context involves sentential structure and sentential meaning. Discourse context comprises paragraph, textual and inter-textual context.

1). lexical context and wording

Examples：

a They were discussing this question, and were almost building up some weak structure of hope on his prolonged absence, when they heard him on the stairs.

b. 他们议论着这个问题，几乎在他迟迟不归上建起了结构脆弱的希望，这时，他们听见他上楼的声音。

c. 他们在讨论这个问题，并且对医生迟迟不归，几乎产生了一线希望，这时，突然听见他上楼的脚步声。

a. He knew what he wanted and he wanted only this: to understand within his limits as a human being the nature of the universe and the logic and simplicity in its functioning.

b. 他知道自己想要什么，他想要的只是：在他作为一个人的能力范围之内理解宇宙的性质以及宇宙运行的逻辑和单纯。

c. 他知道自己渴望什么，他所渴望的仅仅是：在他作为一个人的力所能及的范围之内理解宇宙的性质，了解宇宙功能的规律性，懂得宇宙功能的简易性。a. It was one of those rare December days when the sun was almost as warm as Indian summer.

b. 十二月里有一天，天气反常，几乎跟印度的夏天一样暖热。

c. 那是十二月里一个罕见的日子，阳光几乎暖和得像小阳春天气。

2). Sentential Context and wording

Sentential context involves sentential structure and sentential meaning. Failure to analyze the original sentential structure correctly and failure to grasp the original sentential meaning will result in wrong wording in the version.

3). Discourse context and wording

Meaning is pervasive at any level of language: morphemes, words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs and the whole text. The interdependent relationship of meaning between these levels is apparent: the smaller units form contexts of each other and together they form a larger context for the interpretation of each unit in it. All these smaller and larger units should be harmonious, consistent, and coherent; they should be in agreement with human experience, or at least acceptable in human mind.

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第一节语不惊人死不休——选词和炼句 相传，北宋声誉斐然的文学家苏东坡，一次与他的妹妹苏小妹及诗友黄山谷一起论诗，互相题试。小妹说出“轻风细柳”和“淡月梅花”后，要哥哥从中各加一字，说出诗眼。苏东坡当即道：前句加“摇”，后句加“映”，即“轻风摇细柳，淡月映梅花”。不料苏小妹却评之为“下品”。苏东坡认真地思索后，得意地说：“有了，‘轻风舞细柳，淡月隐梅花’。”小妹微笑道：“好是好了，但仍不属上品。”一旁的黄山谷忍不住了，问道：“依小妹的高见呢？”苏小妹便念了起来：“轻风扶细柳，淡月失梅花。”苏东坡、黄山谷吟诵着，玩味着，不禁拍掌称妙。 这样一改究竟妙在何处？“轻风”徐来，“细柳”动态不显，怎能配得上“摇”“舞”这类较露的动词呢？唯有“扶”字才恰到好处，与“轻”“细”相宜，显得和谐，并且又把风人格化了，形象地描绘出轻风徐来、柳枝拂然的柔态，给人以一种柔美之感。下句中添“映”“隐”也欠贴切。试想，恬静的月亮已经辉满大地，梅花自然没有白天那么显眼，在月光照映下，也就黯然失色了。这样，好一个“失”字，就勾画了月色和梅花相互交融的情景，增强了这一首诗的感染力，真是一字生辉。 我们在选词炼句时，不妨学学古人，好好斟酌一番。 [知识·梳理] 课程内容知识精要 一、选词：准确、生动1.准确：就是用词要精当，选择最能表达你要说的意思的那个词语。 2.生动：不要堆砌陈词滥调，要善于使用新颖别致的词语，形象地表情达意。 3.选词的其他要求：简洁有力，新鲜活泼，形象生动。 4.选择和运用词语的主要方法：精心挑选关键词语，恰当使用修饰词语，注意词语的巧妙配合。 二、炼句：简洁、连贯1.简洁：抓住要害，切中事理。 2.连贯：上下文一个中心，上下句意思要统一衔接，前后要相互照应。 3.在文学写作中选择句式应特别注意以下几种句式之间的关系：短句和长句，肯定句和否定句，陈述句和疑问句，常式句和变式句。

[英语学习]大学英语四级选词填空技巧

大学英语四级选词填空技巧篇 第一步：通读全文read through (1分钟) 通读全文是用较快速度，一行一行地读，目的是把握至少90% 的文章内容。 要先了解文章大意，带着文章脉络去找选项。所以，务必先沉着地把文章读一遍，尤其注意gap 前后的位置，为寻找正确选项打下铺垫。 提醒：就算是通读，也别拿来就把头埋进去傻读。先居高临下，花5秒钟把短文各个自然段的段首扫一遍。第一句是不允许出题的，它对全文起概括、提示的作用。所以，一定要认真看懂第一句。 第二步：整理选项classify the options (1分钟) 这一步，公认的做法是先标出15个选项的词性(parts of speech)，名词前写n, 动词前写v等等。目前四级考试只考实词（notional words）中的四种：名词n 做主语和宾语, 动词v做谓语，形容词adj做定语，副词adv做状语。不考代词pron和数词num；也不考虚词form words（冠词art, 介词prep, 连词conj, 感叹词interj）动词归类要细分为v，ved, ving。因为一个空可以填动词，但填原形还是过去式还是ing形式要自己根据语法判断。 对于四级的一般文章，选项有如下特点：15个单词中3个名词正确答案+1个名词干扰答案、3个动词正确答案+1个动词干扰答案、3个形容词正确答案+2个形容词干扰答案、1个副词正确答案+1个副词干扰答案。应该说四级大部分文章都存在以上特点，但是有时也不完全一致，希望考生利用以上特点作为答题的一个参考。 四种实词中，考的最少的是副词adv, 不超过两个空。剩下的三种平均每次有三道题。研究样题和真题，我们发现，动词一直是考三个。另外三种词性，有两个的，也有四个的。

《选词和炼句》教学设计

《语不惊人死不休──选词和炼句》 教学设计 辉县市第二高级中学刘飞 【学习目标】 1．理解选词炼句在语言表达中的重要性，初步掌握选词炼句的一些基本方法。 2．能运用选词炼句的有关知识分析鉴赏文学作品，体会选词炼句给文学作品带来的 正因为如此，我们的中国文坛上才有了数不胜数的不朽佳作。诗词中的“炼字”已成为高考诗歌考查的热点，课前我们已有布置，相信大家课下已经收集了不少诗词中的精华。和同学交流一下吧。 泉声咽危石，日色冷青松。——唐 ?王维《过香积寺》 “咽”字是动词，“冷”字是形容词，“咽”着重从动态的方面来写，写的是山间的流泉，由于危石的阻拦而发出低弱的吟声，仿佛人的鸣咽之声；“冷”从静态方面来写，写的是披洒在青松上的日色，因为山林的幽暗，似乎显得十分阴冷；诗句中的“咽”“冷”二字一静一动绘声绘色、精炼传神地勾画出了香积寺外山中的幽僻冷寂。

绿杨烟外晓寒轻，红杏枝头春意闹。——宋 ? 宋祁《玉楼春》 作者用一“闹”字，不仅使人觉得杏花绽放得热烈，甚至还让人联想到花丛中蜂蝶飞舞，春鸟和鸣，把一派春意盎然、生机勃勃的景色表现得淋漓尽致。 沙上并禽池上暝，云破月来花弄影。——宋 ? 张先《天仙子》 这句词词少意丰，一语三折。“云、月、花、影”四字写了三物四景，中间又用“破、来、弄”三字写出三种连续的动态：云“破”而有月“来”，月“来”而有花“影”，花“影”引出“弄”字，有“弄”字而有花枝随风摇动、抚弄花影的幽雅姿态。仅仅七个字，从天上写到地下，云横皓月、风弄花影，构成了一幅幽美朦胧的画面，把云、月、花都拟人化了，赋予了 母亲托老乡捎来一双棉鞋。我打开包裹，取出棉鞋时，发现鞋子里塞了一张纸条，上面画着一件棉袄，两床叠在一起的棉被，还有几粒用斜线划去的药丸。看着纸上的铅笔画，隐隐约约的，有擦拭的痕迹，于是想到母亲的手，握着铅笔和橡皮，画了好久才画成。她是在告诉我，天气冷了，多加些衣裳，晚上盖两床被子，记着睡觉前掖好被角，不要着凉感冒了。 我的眼角不觉潮湿了，说不出的一阵心酸。我记得初三那年为了能多些时间在学校复习功课而两个月都没有回家的时候母亲就“写”过像这样的纸条。

大学英语四级选词填空练习 附详细答案

There is a popular belief among parents that schools are no longer interested inspelling .No school I have taught in has ever _____ spelling or considered it unimportantas a basic skill. There are, however , vastly different ideas about how to teach it , or howmuch _____ it must be given over general language development and writing ability. Theproblem is , how to encourage a child to express himself freely and _____ in writing without holding him back with the complexities of spelling?If spelling become th e only focal point of his teacher’s interest, clearly a __4__child will be likely to “play safe”. He will tend to write only words within his spelling range,choosing to avoid __5__ language. That’s why teachers often __6__ the early use ofdictionaries and pay attention to content rather than technical ability.I was once shocked to read on the bottom of a sensitive piece of writing abouta personal experience ：“ This work is __7__ !There are far too many spelling errors andyour writing is illegible( 难以辨认的).” It may have been a sharP__8__ of the pupil’stechnical abilities in writing, but it was also a sad reflection on the teacher who had omittedto read the ess ay, which __9__ some beautiful expressions of the child’s deePfeelings.The teacher was not wrong to draw attention to the errors, but if his priorities had centredon the child’s ideas, an expression of his disappointment with the presentation would havegiven the pupil more __10__ to seek improvement. A)priority B)criticism C)contained D)clearlyE)adventurous F ）discourage G)motivation H)terribleI)ignored J)difficult K)encourage L)expressedM)confidently N)bright O)motive L)expressed Answers: 1. 选I ）。由该句中的has 可知，此处应填动词过去式，且表达的含义应和后面的consider…unimportant 相近，故应排除contained 和expressed而选择ignored 。 2. 选A ）。此处应填名词，但能与后面over 构成固定搭配的名词只有priority ，故排除了criticism 和motivation 。 3. 选M). 由空格前面的and 可知，此处应填副词和freely 并列。从句意来理解，在没有拼写困难的情况下，怎样鼓励学生自由且…… 地表达自己，选项中只有confidently “自信地“符合题意。 4. 选N ）。很明显这里应填形容词，选项中terrible ，difficult 后接事物名词something ，只有adventurous 和bright 可用来形容somebody （child )，再由后面的play safe“不冒险”，可排除adventurous而选择bright。 5. 选E ）。由前一句中的be likely to “ play safe ”和空格前的avoid可以推知，此处所填词的意思应与play safe表达的意思相反，故选项中只有adventurous符合题意。 6. 选K ）。很明显此处应填动词的一般现在时，可选项有encourage和persuade 。由That’s why 知本句与前一句构成因果关系，而前一句说的是学生往往会用他们拼写范围内的词写文章，从而选择避免用那些不会的词，故由此可推知此句应理解为老师鼓励学生用字典，因此排除persuade 而选encourage。 7. 选H ）。此处应填形容词。由空格后面的too many spelling errors和illegible可知，这篇文章是写的很糟，而不是很难理解。故排除difficult而选terrible。 8. 选B ）。此处应填名词。由后半句中 a sad reflection on the teacher可知，前半句是在指责学生，故选项中只有criticism符合题意。 9. 选C ）。此处填动词过去式，本句中由which 引导的从句是对essay的解释，剩余选项中contained 和expressed ，根据句意，文章…… 儿童内心感受的一些好的表达，