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博士英语课文翻译Unit 6分栏

博士英语课文翻译Unit 6分栏
博士英语课文翻译Unit 6分栏

Leisure, Freedom and Liberal Education

休闲,自由以及自由教育

1. Generally speaking, a liberal education, as the name suggests, is an education for freedom. As one commentator describes it, “a liberal education ought to make a person independent of mind, skeptical of authority and received views, prepared to forge an identity for himself or herself, and capable of becoming an individual not bent upon copying other persons.” Accordingly, liberal education is often valued or justified as a means for acquiring the critical thinking skill that are necessary to attain individual autonomy as well as for meeting the demands of an ever changing world. Given this important yet broad purpose, no wonder there is such a vast array of subjects and disciplines that fall within the purview of liberal education.

一般来说,顾名思义,通才教育是一种自由的教育形式。正如一名评论家所描述的,通才教育应当使人思想独立、敢于质疑权威和别人的观点,并为自己建立一个代表自己身份的观点,并能使人有能力成为独立个体,而不是去效仿他人。因此,通才教育被证明或被评价为获得批判性思维,并以获得个人的自由独立以及适应多变世界需求的一种手段。考虑到这种重要用途,毫无疑问,如此众多的学科和准则都属于通才教育的范畴。

2. While this understanding of liberal education as the acquisition of critical thinking skill and individual autonomy is currently in fashion, it is not the only understanding. Traditionally, the ultimate purpose of liberal education had been the pursuit of leisure not critical thinking skills. While developing a critical mind was included in liberal studies, the ultimate purpose was to cultivate a life of contemplation that transcends the workday world. Liberal education for leisure sought to break through a disenchanted view of the world and awaken wonder at mere being.

将通才教育看作是获得批判性思维能力和个人的独立自由的观点在现在很流行,但这不是唯一的理解。传统上,通才教育的最终目的是追求自由的思想,而不是批判性思维能力。虽然发展批判性思想包括于通才教育中,但终极目标是要对生活的思考态度超越平凡的世界。追求休闲的通才教育要打破不再对世界抱有幻想的观点,并唤醒人们的好奇心。

3. To contemporary eras, an education for leisurely contemplation may sound nostalgic, impractical, or even elitist. A Deweyan might regard the promotion of education for leisure as a reversion to an ancient and outdated hierarchical social stratum that promotes escapism and the status quo. And yet this was neither the intention nor the effect of leisure in the traditional understanding. Rather, leisure involved a humble and intense practice of self-examination so as to ensure a genuine freedom. Freedom, it was thought, was not simply the result of critical thinking but also required a vigilant receptivity—a stillness from the busy world of work and the restive probing of a discursive mind. Proponents maintained that this stillness was necessary for beholding and receiving the fullest disclosure of being, and they considered it the foundation of authentic freedom.

对当代人来说,追求自由思想的教育听起来有些怀旧、不现实,更像是精英主义所为。杜威把休闲看作是恢复到古代的、过时的社会等级制度,使人们更加逃避现实,安于现状。然而,在传统理解上,这既不是休闲的意图也不是休闲的作用。确切地说,休闲包括谦逊、认真的自我反省以确保真正意义上的自由,人们认为自由不仅仅是批判性思维的结果,还包括警惕的接受能力——从繁忙的工作中,回归内心平和、坚持探索的心灵。支持者认为这种平和是领悟和接受最真实的现实所必需的,是真正自由的基础。

4. Today, the conditions of modern life suggest how out of place a call for leisure sounds. The preponderance of our attention, observes Abraham Heschel, is directed toward utilitarian pursuits, including the exploitation of our world’s resources. Surveying contemporary Western culture, Josef Pieper also notes the ascendancy of work for work’s sake. Max weber’s statement, “One does not only work in order to live, but on lives for the sake of one’s work,” captures, the prevailing mind-set of our time. This work-obsessed culture makes total claims on time and space, reducing learning to “the way of expediency,”wherein information and knowledge are accumulated for power and mastery. Universities, rather than being a space apart from the world of work, become engrossed by it.

如今,现代生活的条件表明,追求休闲是多么地不合时宜。由亚伯拉罕所观察到的,我们大部分的注意力都是对实用主义的追求,甚至包括对自然资源的利用上太过功利。审视当代的西方文化,约瑟夫﹒皮珀也认为为工作而工作具有普遍性。马克思﹒韦伯也指出,人不仅是为了活着而工作,而是为了工作而活着,这反映了所盛行的思维方式。工作狂文化使所有的人都在争取时间和空间,学习已沦为一种权宜之计,信息和知识的积累只是为了未来的权利和控制。大学现在不再是一个远离工作的场所,反而是过度关注它。

5. Given such conditions, leisure does contradict the values that drive modern life. However, it is in light of this hegemonic ethos of work that l submit educators should be interested in the historic association of liberal education and leisure. A liberal education for leisure offers a valuable defense against the world of work that a liberal education for critical thinking is vulnerable to. More important, leisure offers a valuable way of learning that ushers in an authentic freedom that a critical approach to learning and liberal education does not.

从这种角度,休闲的确与现代生活的价值观相冲突。尽管如此,正是鉴于这种霸道的工作作风,我主张教育者应该更关注那些历史悠久的研究通才教育和休闲教育的协会。休闲教育能够为工作世界的观点提供强有力的反驳,而这种观点认为通才教育旨在培养批判教育的方式是不堪一击的。更重要的是,休闲教育提供了一种开创了真正自由的非常宝贵的学习方式,而这是培养批判性思维学习方式所不能做到的。

6. In short, cultivating a leisured way of life has been and ought to be an essential part of what is considered a liberal education. A liberal education for leisure, it will be shown, holds some challenging initiatives for the way liberal education is often conceived and practiced.

总之,培养一种休闲的生活方式不仅过去是、也应该是通才教育的很重要的组成部分。追求休闲的通才教育会被证明是具有挑战性的措施,这才是通才教育所设计和实施的方式。

Leisure and Freedom 休闲与自由

7. Though far from passive, leisure can be misconstrued as a form of quietism. As noted, a Deweyan or Marxist critic might contend that leisure, in cultivation passivity, maintains the status quo and thus fails to address or embolden the free agency required to promote social change. This criticism is specious. Rather than passivity, the leisure that Pieper and Heschel call forth involves an intense practice of self-examination that cultivates true freedom by guarding against idleness, compulsive busyness, and pointless desires.

尽管休闲绝非被动,但仍被大家误解为清净无为。如上所述,杜威流派或马克思主义批判者主张既然休闲是被动的维持现状,那它就不能应对推动社会变革的自由意志。这些批判似是而非,而皮珀和赫舍尔推崇的休闲并不是被动的,它认为休闲是一种通过阻止懒散、强制性的忙碌和无意义的欲望来培养真正自由的自我反省式的实践。

8. Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Elder Zossima in The Brothers Karamazov illuminates this point when he contrasts worldly freedom with the freedom cultivated by monks. Worldly freedom, Zossima argues, is more often than not a form of slavery to countless unnecessary desires. Accordingly, worldly freedom is externally understood as the ability to satisfy desires. What this means for the rich, he says, is “isolation and spiritual suicide; for the poor, envy and murder, for they have been given rights, but have not yet been shown any way of satisfying their needs.” Such a person is not free but a slave “to satisfying the innumerable needs they have invented for themselves.”

菲奥多尔·陀斯妥耶夫斯基在《卡拉马佐夫兄弟》中塑造的长老若司马在对比世俗自由和僧侣追求的自由时解释了这个观点。若司马认为世俗自由是满足无谓欲望的奴隶。因此,从表面上看,世俗自由可以理解成一种满足欲望的能力。他说:“对于富人来讲,世俗自由是孤立无援和精神自杀;对于穷人来讲,则是嫉妒和谋杀。虽然他们被赋予这种权利,却没有任何办法来满足他们的需求。”这种人不是自由的,只是满足自我设想的无穷无尽需求的奴隶。

9. Zossima contrasts worldly freedom against monastic freedom, characterized as it is by obedience, fasting, and prayer. These practices, he notes, are laughed at, but it is only through them that one is able to cut away superfluous needs, humble oneself, and thereby attain true interior freedom. The monk’s freedom, while seemingly passive, is in truth a deeper, more vigilant pursuit of freedom.

若司马将世俗自由与僧侣自由进行比较,认为僧侣自由的特点是顺从、禁食、祷告。尽管僧侣的这些做法被人们取笑,但只有如此僧侣才能去掉多余的需求,谦逊自我,获得真正的内在的自由。他们的自由看似被动却是实质的深层次的对自由警醒的追求。

10. Gandhi in the Hind Swaraj articulated this same point. Indians, he said, in their haste to expel the British from their homeland failed to see how their oppression had become internalized. Once the British left India, whether by force or voluntarily, Indians would still be oppressed. Gandhi described it this way: “we want English rule without the Englishman. You want the tiger’s nature, but not the tiger; that is to say, you would make India English, and, when it becomes English, it will be not Hindustan but English. This is not the Swaraj that I want.” What was needed was the attainment of true freedom—or Swaraj, as Gandhi called it —which was often misunderstood as simply expelling the British while keeping their political, military, and economic institutions.

甘地在他的《印度自制》中也明确的表述了这样的观点。他说,尽管印度急于把英国人驱逐出去,却没有看到他们的压迫变得内在化了。不论是被迫还是自愿,英国人虽然离开了,但是印度仍旧是受压迫的民族。甘地这样描述到:“我们想要英国式的统治,而非英国人的统治,就如同你想要老虎的天性而非老虎本身一样。也就是说,你将会使印度英国化。当印度真正英国化以后,就不是真正的印度而是英国化的印度。那不是我们想要的自制。”正像甘地提到的,印度需要获得的是真正的自由--自制。但这种自制又常被误导为仅仅是驱逐英国人,并保留其政治、军队和经济体制。

11. Instead, Gandhi explained, Swaraj involves a deep personal transformation wherein we learn to rule ourselves. It is “someth ing that has to be experienced internally, giving rise to an internal moral transformation for the individua l.”Lacking this, he said, Indians become captives to the marketplace and its ratio-dominated epistemology. Moreover, as a consequence, Indians accept the charge that they are a lazy people and that the Europeans are an enterprising and industrious people. This mistaken view stirs up a restlessness to change their condition. In their haste to be free like the English, Indians forget their religious tr aditions that teach them “to remain passive about wor ldly pursuits and active about godly pursuits,” and thus give in to the total claims made by the world of work. Focused only on material goods and external freedom, Indians forget their spiritual or interior freedom.

相反,甘地认为,自制指的是一个深层次的转变,在这种转变中印度人要学会自制。它是“一种内在的转变,会引起每个人道德观的改变。”缺少这种改变,印度人就会沦为肉体和精神上的双重奴隶。所以,印度接受了印度人是懒惰的,而欧洲人是进取的、勤劳的这样的指责。这种错误的观点使印度人急于改变自己,以至于在追逐英国自由化的同时,忘记了他们的宗教传统:“止步于世俗追求,执着于虔诚的信仰。”最终印度只能屈从于工作世界创造的东西。只注重于物质世界和外在自由,忘记了他们的精神世界和内在自由。

Education For Leisure针对休闲的教育

12. Given the intrinsic value of leisure, what would an education dedicated to leisure consist of today? How might an emphasis on leisure change the curriculum and educational practice? In attempting to answer these questions, it is helpful first to examine the discursive approach to learning, exploring how it informs contemporary education.

鉴于休闲的内在本质,致力于休闲的教育在如今会由哪些东西构成呢?强调休闲的教育又将如何改变课程设置和教育实践呢?首先把验证式学习法弄清楚对回答这些问题是有帮助的。

13. The discursive approach is perhaps best exemplified in the scientific method that discovers a problem, formulates a hypothesis, and then conducts experiments to measure or assess the validity of that hypothesis. Discursive thinking is also a central part of the Socratic method, wherein a thesis or point of view is offered, followed by a counterpoint, culminating in a rigorous dialectic that seeks to discover a new and better conclusion. The outcomes reached by both scientists and dialecticians are always tentative, continually subject to further questioning. The provisional nature of such inquiry lends itself to a critical mind-set, prone to doubting, problematizing, and questioning.

验证法可能是科学研究方法中的一个最好的例证,即发现问题、提出假设,然后进行试验来验证假设的正确性。验证思维同时也是苏格拉底问答法的核心部分,在苏格拉底问答法中,先提出一个论点或观点,之后是与之对应的论据,然后在严密的辩证法中将该论点逐步升华,得出一个新的或较好的结论。由科学家和辩证学家得出的结论仍然是初步性的,会继续受到质疑。这种探究的暂时性特点有助于形成批判性思维,即倾向于怀疑、提问、质疑。

14. This discursive mind-set is pervasive, seemingly touching every aspect of present day education: in math classes, students are presented with problem; in literature and history classes, questions are entertained; in chemistry and biology classes, labs are designed to provide students with opportunities to experiment and text theories. Moreover, the annual battery of standardized tests seeks to quantify students’ abilities to think critically.

论证思维模式很普遍,似乎渗透到了当今教育的各个方面:在数学课上,学生需解决问题;在文学或历史课上,学生需思考问题;在化学或生物课上,实验课为学生提供实验或检验理论的机会。更重要的是,每年的一系列标准化测试来量化学生批判性思维的能力。

15. Given the dominance of discursive thinking, it is hard to imagine a place for leisure in today’s curriculum. It is not my intention to displace or overturn discursive thinking; its value is well established, but such thinking is vulnerable to abuse. The concern of medieval monks about dialectics being driven more by a love of winning than a desire for wisdom is still valid today.

鉴于论证思维如此之盛行,很难想象在如今的课程中会有休闲教育的一席之地,我并不是想取代或颠覆论证思维法;论证思维的价值是公认的,但是它很容易被滥用。中世纪时期僧侣们对于辩证法的热衷,更多是出于争强好胜而非对于智慧的追求,这种情况现在依然如此。

16. To consider a place for leisure, it is helpful to further compare and contrast leisurely versus discursive approaches to learning. Leisure, as noted, is a form of beholding. It is the step prior to the discursive ratio. Before doubting or questioning can occur, something must have been seen and observed. Thus ratio and intellectus need not be in conflict. The problem, though, is the rush to exploit or problematize that which is seen. For instance, consider a person walking in the woods who suddenly stumbles upon a beautiful field of grass. Such a person, rather than encountering the field in all its grandeur, might quickly jump to considerations of what practical good can be made of it. Perhaps to one person such a field is a valuable piece of real estate for a housing development, to another it is a perfect place to walk a dog, and yet to another it is an ideal place to play football .Or perhaps another person inclined toward scientific scrutiny might ask how, amid a vast forest with trees pollinating every spring, did such a field come to exist? Often one’s interest or agenda can determine and limit how and what one sees.

休闲教育要想拥有一席之地,需要同论证法进行对比。如前所述,休闲是一种醒悟,它在论证思维之前出现。我们在怀疑或质疑之前,必须是看到或观察到一些东西,因此,判断和理智并不冲突。问题是,我们总是急于将所看到的东西视为一个问题。例如,在森林中走的一个人,突然发现一片美丽的草地,他没有去欣赏遇到的美丽景色,而是忙于考虑这片草地会有什么实际价值。对某一个人来说,这片草地可能会有房产开发价值;对另一个人来说,这人可能是遛狗的好地方;而另外一个人可能会认为只是一个踢球的好地方。另外一个习惯于科学审视的人可能会问,怎么会有这样一片草地呢?因为周围都是树木而花草每年都需要授粉。通常,兴趣或日常工作会决定或限制一个人如何看待事物。

17. Leisurely learning is optimistic in assuming that seeing can transcend particular interests of the moment. To pursue leisure is to put on hold vested considerations so as to experience wonder at the mere presence of something. Such a process, of course, is easier said than done .In seeking to keep in check one’s interests or agendas (well-intentioned though they may be), one begins a difficult process of self-examination. The desire to pursue our interests and satiate our desires often outweighs the desire for self-knowledge or even liberation from needless desires.

休闲学习乐观地认为亲眼所见可超越目前的特定利益,追求休闲就是不考虑既得利益而去体验惊奇。但是,这个过程说起来容易做起来难。人们试图约束自己对利益的追求,开始艰难的自我反省。为了满足自己需求的欲望往往超过了自我认识的欲望,甚至超过了那些从肤浅需求中解脱出来的欲望。

18. Preparing for leisure is thus an arduous journey of self-examination that requires patience and abstinence in the face of questions or desires that demand immediate resolution. Hence the ascetic practices of monks that were practiced not as masochistic ends in themselves but always as means to self-understanding. self-control, and ultimately self-surrender to the beholding that is leisure.

因此,对于休闲的培养是一条艰难的自我反省之路,当面临亟待解决的问题和欲望时,要求有足够的耐性和自我节制。由此看来,僧侣式的禁欲修行并非是以虐待自我为目的,而往往是作为自我认知,自我控制,自我遵从,最终到达顿悟的一种手段。

19. Cultivation of humility in the face of that which we think we know is essential. It entails the abiding and practiced awareness that there is more to see. Such humility,

as Leclercq says, is “not the acquisition of a scientific principle”,but “an experien ce, a personal growth in real awareness”.Leclercq’s distinction here is significant. Grasping a principle involves attaining power or control over some aspect of reality. Cultivation of leisure, by contrast, involves surrender and humility in the face of reality so as to receive the vision of intellectus. Thus an education for leisure would no doubt involve rigorous self-examination. Leclercq’s metaphor of growth suggests some direction. We have a natural propensity for leisure but this growth, like the growth of our own bodies, is not reached through personal will power. Leisure can be cultivated but not achieved.

当我们面对已知的事物时,对于谦卑的培养就显得十分必要了。我们必须将“人外有人,山外有山”的意识时刻熟谙于心。正如Leclercq所言,谦卑并非如获得一种科学原理,而像是一种真正觉悟的个人成长历程。Leclercq所指出的这种差别是显而易见的。获得一种科学原理只是得到了对现实中某些方面的权利或掌控。而相形之下,休闲的培养则意味着对现实的遵从和谦卑以便获得理智的洞察力。由此可见,休闲教育无疑要专注于严格的自我反省。这一点从Leclercq将其喻作“成长”中便可见一斑。尽管我们拥有一种休闲的自然倾向,但休闲的成长,就如我们身体的成长一样,不是仅凭个人的意志力就能够实现的。休闲只能逐渐培养,不能一蹴而就。

20. Thus an education for leisure would not employ outcomes or objectives(or grading) in the usual sense, wherein a teacher using a variety of pedagogical strategies can expect a certain degree of success among students, qualitatively or quantitatively measured. It is doubtful that leisure can be directed in the way that a biology teacher can direct students through the dissection of a frog or a grammar teacher in diagramming sentences. Unlike discursive methods, leisure is difficult if not impossible to quantify. Rather, in aiming for leisure, we as educators may only be able to model and invite by creating space in ratio-dominated days for the experience of leisure. However, we cannot force leisure, either with the threat of a failing grade or the promise of a reward, for leisure is an intensely personal endeavor—intangible but real.

因此,休闲教育不能采用通常意义上的结果、目标(或成绩)来定性或定量,也不能因为教师采用不同的教学法就期待学生取得长足的进步。诸如生物老师通过解剖青蛙或语法老师通过图表解析句子的指导方法来培养休闲是值得怀疑的。不同于论证法,要量化休闲,即便是可行的,也是十分困难的。更确切地讲,我们作为教育者要想培养休闲教育,只能在判断思维盛行的当今世界中创造空间来以身作则并吸引学生体验休闲。然而,我们既不能以不及格为威胁,也不能许以奖励,因为休闲作为一种无形却真实存在的积极自我追求是不能被强迫的。

21. In addition to creating space for savoring the wonders of the world, educators who aim to cultivate leisure can hold up exemplars, such as Grandhi and Heschel, who embody a practice of leisure.

除了要创造空间去品味世界的奇妙之处外,旨在培养休闲教育的教育者也要树立类似甘地和Heschel那样践行休闲教育的榜样。

22. Though leisure is fundamentally a personal endeavor, it is difficult to maintain on one’s own. It is best sustained and cultivated within a community, as monastic leisure suggests. To sustain a practice of leisure, monks created communities completely dedicated to it. Without a communal commitment to leisure, it is difficult to ensure the requisite time and space for savory and wonder, as well as an awareness of the discipline and sacrifice that leisure involves. Nevertheless, I believe educators can make inroads by establishing classroom communities that make some space for leisure.

虽然休闲基本上是靠个人努力实现的,但要独自坚持践行却是艰难的。我们所追求的休闲在团体中能得到最好的坚持和培养,就像僧侣所追求的休闲一样。为了能够持之以恒,他们创立了致力于修行的团体。若缺乏对休闲的共同信奉,就很难保证品味和探寻休闲奇妙之处所需的时间和空间,以及休闲所要求的纪律和牺牲意识。不过,我相信教育者们可以从建立课堂团体为休闲提供空间入手,进而成功进入休闲世界。

23. Though leisure came to fruition in a Catholic context, a commitment to leisure today does not require a commitment to a sectarian religious tradition. Instead, leisure, understood as a profound way of seeing, is an intrinsic good available to anyone. This leisured way cultivates a true freedom that resists the restive world of work that defines and appraises one’s value exclusively in terms of what one does. Liberal education justified primarily or exclusively for its contribution to ratio thinking is vulnerable to the hegemonic world of work and risks undermining the very freedom it seeks to attain. In the rush to problematize, to question, to refute, to exploit, and to doubt, one may be masking a discontent with oneself or be blindly driven by questionable desires and interests. Moreover, liberal education as critical thinking offers only one side of the great tradition of liberal education. Valuable as it is, this leisurely way of learning and living once was, and ought to be again today, an essential part of what constitutes a liberal education.

尽管休闲在天主教的背景下曾经得以实现,当今对休闲的追求并不局限于偏狭的宗教传统。反而休闲被视为一种深刻地看待事物的方式,是一种人人可享的内在美德。这种休闲的方式可以培养一种真正的自由来抵制焦躁不安的、仅凭所作所为就来定义和评价一个人的工作世界。若主要甚至仅仅凭借对判断性思维的贡献来评判通才教育的合理性,就会在这个霸道的工作世界面前显得不堪一击,也将使我们难以追寻真正的自由。在匆忙的问题化、提问、辩驳、利用、质疑中,人们可能掩饰着对自身的不满,也容易被不可靠的欲望和利益盲目驱使着。不仅如此,追求批判性思维的通才教育也仅仅体现了传统通才教育的一个方面。而弥足珍贵的休闲教育和生活方式不仅曾经是,现在也依然应该是通才教育的精华所在。

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AN EXCITING JOB I have the greatest job in the world. I travel to unusual places and work alongside people from all over the world. Sometimes working outdoors, sometimes in an office, sometimes using scientific equipment and sometimes meeting local people and tourists, I am never bored. Although my job is occasionally dangerous, I don't mind because danger excites me and makes me feel alive. However, the most important thing about my job is that I help protect ordinary people from one of the most powerful forces on earth - the volcano. I was appointed as a volcanologist working for the Hawaiian V olcano Observatory (HVO) twenty years ago. My job is collecting information for a database about Mount Kilauea, which is one of the most active volcanoes in Hawaii. Having collected and evaluated the information, I help other scientists to predict where lava from the volcano will flow next and how fast. Our work has saved many lives because people in the path of the lava can be warned to leave their houses. Unfortunately, we cannot move their homes out of the way, and many houses have been covered with lava or burned to the ground. When boiling rock erupts from a volcano and crashes back to earth, it causes less damage than you might imagine. This is because no one lives near the top of Mount Kilauea, where the rocks fall. The lava that flows slowly like a wave down the mountain causes far more damage because it

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discordant [] adj. 不和谐的,刺耳的;不一致的 【例句】Leonato thought they would make a discordant pair. 里奥那托认为他们不适宜作夫妻。 【搭配】discordant views不一致的观点 【助记】dis+cord(心)+ant→不一条心→不一致的 weld [] vt. 焊接,煅接 n. 焊接,焊缝 【例句】The car has had a new wing welded on. 这辆汽车焊接了一个新的翼子板。【助记】wedding 结婚就是两人熔合在一起不分开。we-ld we-我们ld-路灯我们把路灯焊接在一起。 【派生】welding n. 焊接 crackle [] n. 劈啪响;裂纹 vi. (使)发劈啪声 【例句】The radio crackled again. 收音机又吱吱啦啦地响了起来。 laser [] n. 激光 【例句】This is a virtual keyboard with laser impressions on any table or other surface. 这是一个可以在任何桌面或其他表面投射的激光虚拟键盘。 【助记】发音记忆:“镭射”→激光

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——民事债务 civil debt ——民事管辖 civil jurisdiction ——民事制裁 civil sanction ——民事审判 civil trial ——民事调解 civil mediation ——民事罚款 civil penalty ——民事权利争议 dispute concerning private rights ——民事权利剥夺 deprived of private rights ——民事权利请求 civil claim ——民事权利变更 alternation of private right ——民政 civil administraion ——民事权利与责任 civil right and liability ——民事权利 civil right ——人身权利 jura personarum; rights of the person ——人格权 right of personality ——上诉权 right of appeal ——不受时效限制权 imprescriptible right ——立遗嘱权 right to make a will ——合法权利 legal right ——共有权 communal tenure

新课标高中英语选修6课文-第一单元reading翻译

西方绘画艺术简史 艺术是受一个民族的风俗和信仰影响。西方艺术风格经历了多次变革。因为西方艺术多种多样,在短短的一篇课文里不可能进行全面的描述。因此,本书只谈及从公元六世纪开始以来最重要的几种艺术风格。 中世纪(5到15世纪) 在中世纪时期,画家的主要目的是把宗教主题表现出来。这一时期传统的艺术家无意于如实地展现自然和人物。这时的典型绘画充满了宗教的特征,体现出了对上帝的爱戴和敬重。但是,13世纪时绘画观念在改变是显而易见的,像乔托这样的画家开始以一种更现实的方式来画宗教场景。 文艺复兴时期(15世纪到16世纪) 在文艺复兴时期,新的思想和价值观逐渐取代了中世纪的思想和价值观。人们开始较少关注宗教主题而采取一种更人性化的生活态度。同时画家们回到罗马、希腊的古典艺术理念上。他们力争如实画出人物和自然。富人们想拥有自己的艺术品,这样就可以装饰自己的高级宫殿和豪宅。他们出价聘请著名艺术家不仅让他们画他们的活动和成就,还要他们画自己的肖像、房子和所有物。 在此期间,最重要的发现之一就是如何用透视法来画出事务。这一手法是1428年由马萨乔第一次使用的。当人们第一次看到他的画时,还以为是透过墙上的小洞来观看真实的场景,并对此深信不疑。如果没有发现透视法,就没有人能画出如此逼真的画。巧合的是,这一时期油画颜料也得到了发展,使得绘画的色彩看上去更丰富、更深沉。没有新的颜料和新的手法,我们就不能看到很多使这一时期著名的杰作。 印象派(19世纪后期到20世纪初期) 19世纪后期,欧洲发生了巨大的变化,从以农业为主的社会转变成了以工业为主的社会。许多人从农村迁入到新城市。有许多新发明和社会变革。这些变革也自然地促成了新的绘画风格。在那些突破传统画法的画家中有生活和工作在法国巴黎的印象派画家。 印象派画家是第一批室外写景的画家。他们急切地想把一天中不同时间投射到物体上的光线和阴影呈现出来。然而由于自然光的变化很快,印象派画家们必须很快地作画,因此,他们的画就不像以前那些画家们的画那样细致了。起初,很多人不喜欢这种画法,甚至还怒不可遏。他们说这些画家作画时漫不经心,粗枝大叶,而他们的作品更是荒谬可笑。 现代艺术(20世纪到今天) 在印象派作品的创建初期,他们是存在着争议的,但是如今已经被人们接受而成为我们现在所说的“现代艺术”的始祖了。这是因为印象派鼓励画家用一种崭新的视角看待他们的环境。如今,现代艺术风格有好几十种,然而如果没有印象派,那么这许多不同的风格也许就不可能存在。一方面,有些现代艺术是抽象的,也就是说,画家并不打算把我们眼睛看到的东西如实地画出来,而是集中展现物体的某些品质特征,用色彩、线条和形状把它们呈现出来。而另一方面,有些现代派的艺术作品却是那么真实,看上去就像是照片。这些风格如此不同。谁能预言将来会有什么样的绘画风格?

全新版大学英语综合教程3课文原文及翻译6-8

unit 6 The Last Leaf When Johnsy fell seriously ill, she seemed to lose the will to hang on to life. The doctor held out little hope for her. Her friends seemed helpless. Was there nothing to be done? 约翰西病情严重,她似乎失去了活下去的意志。医生对她不抱什么希望。朋友们看来也爱莫能助。难道真 的就无可奈何了吗? 1 At the top of a three-story brick building, Sue and Johnsy had their studio. "Johnsy" was familiar for Joanna. One was from Maine; the other from California. They had met at a cafe on Eighth Street and found their tastes in art, chicory salad and bishop sleeves so much in tune that the joint studio resulted. 在一幢三层砖楼的顶层,苏和约翰西辟了个画室。“约翰西”是乔安娜的昵称。她们一位来自缅因州,一 位来自加利福尼亚。两人相遇在第八大街的一个咖啡馆,发现各自在艺术品味、菊苣色拉,以及灯笼袖等方面趣 味相投,于是就有了这个两人画室。 2 That was in May. In November a cold, unseen stranger, whom the doctors called Pneumonia, stalked about the district, touching one here and there with his icy fingers. Johnsy was among his victims. She lay, scarcely moving on her bed, looking through the small window at the blank side of the next brick house. 那是5月里的事。到了11月,一个医生称之为肺炎的阴森的隐形客闯入了这一地区,用它冰冷的手指东 碰西触。约翰西也为其所害。她病倒了,躺在床上几乎一动不动,只能隔着小窗望着隔壁砖房那单调沉闷的侧墙。 3 One morning the busy doctor invited Sue into the hallway with a bushy, gray eyebrow. 一天上午,忙碌的医生扬了扬灰白的浓眉,示意苏来到过道。 4 "She has one chance in ten," he said. "And that chance is for her to want to live. Your little lady has made up her mind that she's not going to get well. Has she anything on her mind? “她只有一成希望,”他说。“那还得看她自己是不是想活下去。你这位女朋友已经下决心不想好了。她有 什么心事吗?” 5 "She -- she wanted to paint the Bay of Naples some day," said Sue. “她――她想有一天能去画那不勒斯湾,”苏说。 6 "Paint? -- bosh! Has she anything on her mind worth thinking about twice -- a man, for instance?" “画画?――得了。她有没有别的事值得她留恋的――比如说,一个男人?” 7 "A man?" said Sue. "Is a man worth -- but, no, doctor; there is nothing of the kind." “男人?”苏说。“难道一个男人就值得――可是,她没有啊,大夫,没有这码子事。” 8 "Well," said the doctor. "I will do all that science can accomplish. But whenever my patient begins to count the carriages in her funeral procession I subtract 50 per cent from the curative power of medicines." After the doctor had gone Sue went into the workroom and cried. Then she marched into Johnsy's room with her drawing board, whistling a merry tune. “好吧,”大夫说。“我会尽一切努力,只要是科学能做到的。可是,但凡病人开始计算她出殡的行列里有 几辆马车的时候,我就要把医药的疗效减去一半。”大夫走后,苏去工作室哭了一场。随后她携着画板大步走进 约翰西的房间,口里吹着轻快的口哨。 9 Johnsy lay, scarcely making a movement under the bedclothes, with her face toward the window. She was looking out and counting -- counting backward. 约翰西躺在被子下几乎一动不动,脸朝着窗。她望着窗外,数着数――倒数着数! 10 "Twelve," she said, and a little later "eleven"; and then "ten," and "nine"; and then "eight" and "seven," almost together. “12,”她数道,过了一会儿“11”,接着数“10”和“9”;再数“8”和“7”,几乎一口同时数下来。 11 Sue looked out of the window. What was there to count? There was only a bare, dreary yard to be seen, and the blank side of the brick house twenty feet away. An old, old ivy vine climbed half way up the brick wall. The cold breath of autumn had blown away its leaves, leaving it almost bare. 苏朝窗外望去。外面有什么好数的呢?外面只看到一个空荡荡的沉闷的院子,还有20英尺开外那砖房的侧墙,上面什么也没有。一棵古老的常青藤爬到半墙高。萧瑟秋风吹落了枝叶,藤上几乎光秃秃的。

英语选修六Unit1课文翻译

高二人教新课标选修6 unit 1 Art课文翻译 Reading 1 A SHORT HISTORY OF WESTERN PAINTING Art is influenced by the customs and faith of a people. Styles in Western art have changed many times. As there are so many different styles of Western art, it would be impossible to describe all of them in such a short text. Consequently, this text will describe only the most important ones, starting from the sixth century AD. The Middle Ages (5th to the 15th century AD) During the Middle Ages, the main aim of painters was to represent religious themes. A conventional artist of this period was not interested in showing nature and people as they really were. A typical picture at this time was full of religious symbols, which created a feeling of respect and love for God. But it was evident that ideas were changing in the 13th century when painters like Giotto di Bondone began to paint religious scenes in a more realistic way. The Renaissance (15th to 16th century) During the Renaissance, new ideas and values gradually replaced those held in the Middle Ages. People began to concentrate less on religious themes and adopt a more humanistic attitude to life. At the same time painters returned to classical Roman and Greek ideas about art. They tried to paint people and nature as they really were. Rich people wanted to possess their own paintings, so they could decorate their superb palaces and great houses. They paid famous artists to paint pictures of themselves, their houses and possessions, as well as their activities and achievements. One of the most important discoveries during this period was how to draw things in perspective. This technique was first used by Masaccio in 1428. When people first saw his paintings, they were convinced that they were looking through a hole in the wall at a real scene. If the rules of perspective had not been discovered, no one would have been able to paint such realistic pictures. By coincidence, oil paints were also developed at this time, which made the colours used in paintings look richer and

法律英语_何家弘编_第四版课文翻译(1-20课)

第一课美国法律制度介绍 第一部分特征与特点 美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。与许多别的国家相比它是一个新的国家。同时,它还因新人口成分和新州的加入而持续更新,在此意义上,它也是新国家。但是在其它的意义上它是老国家。它是最老的“新”国家——第一个由旧大陆殖民地脱胎而出的国家。它拥有最古老的成文宪法、最古老的持续的联邦体制以及最古老的民族自治实践。 美国的年轻(性)有一个很有意思的特点就是它的历史肇始于印刷机发明之后。因此它的整个历史都得以记录下来:确实可以很有把握地说,任何其它国家都没有像美国这样全面的历史记录,因为像在意大利、法国或者英国过去的传说中湮没的那样的事件在美国都成了有文字记载的历史之一部分。而且其记录不仅全面,还非常浩繁。不仅包括这个国家自1776年以来的殖民时期的记录,还有当前五十个州以及各州和联邦(nation)之间错综复杂的关系网络的历史记录。因此,据一个非常简单的例子,美国最高法院判例汇编有大约350卷,而一些州的判例汇编也几乎有同样多的卷数:想研究美国法律史的读者要面对的是超过5000巨卷的司法案例。 我们不能说一个文件或几个文件就能揭示出一国人民或其政府的特性。但如果横跨一百多年的千百万个文件敲出始终如一的音调,我们就有理由说这就是其主调。当千百万个文件都以同样的方式去解决同样的中心问题,我们就有理由从中得出可以被称为国民特定的确定结论。 第二部分普通法和衡平法 同英国一样,美国法律制度从方法论上来说主要是一种判例法制度。许多私法领域仍然主要是由判例法构成,广泛而不断增长的制定法一直受制于有约束力的(解释制定法的)判例法。因此,判例法方法的知识以及使用判例法的技巧对于理解美国法律和法律方法是极其重要的。 从历史的角度来看,普通法就是由英国皇家法院的巡回法官的判决所得出的普通的一般法——优于地方法。采纳或执行某项诉讼请求是以存在法院令状这种特殊形式的诉为前提的,而这就使最初的普通法表现为由类似于古罗马法的“诉”所构成的体系。如果存在令状(于1227年),诉讼请求就可以被采纳或执行;没有法院令状(为前提)的诉讼请求就没有追索权,因而该诉讼请求也不存在。“牛津条例”(1285年)禁止创设除了“个案令状”之外的新令状,这种“个案令状”使该制度变得较为灵活了,而且导致了后来合同和侵权法的发展。 对于诉的形式的严格限制及由此产生的对追索权的限制导致了衡平法和衡平判例法的发展。“衡平”的一般意义就是寻求“公平”,即公平且善良地裁决,它最初是由国王,后来由作为“国王良知守护人”的大法官颁行,以便在艰难的案件中提供救济。但是到了十四世纪,衡平法和衡平判例法发展成了一个独立的法律制度和与一般的普通法法院一争高下的司法系统(衡平法院)。其规则和格言变得非常固定而且在某种程度上不像在其它法律制度中一样灵活。衡平法的特点有:以特定履行(或实际履行)的方式提供救济(与普通法提供补偿性损害赔偿金的救济方式形成对照);强制令(为或者不为某项具体行为的临时或者最终法令);渗透了整个法律制度并且能在许多场合下揭示现代法律概念的起源的所谓的衡平法格言的发展。不过,一般都是只有在普通法救济不充分时,才会出现衡平法救济。比如,优于普通法损害赔偿金被认为是不充分的,这是因为考虑到不动产所具有的唯一性,这些赔偿金无法补偿不动产购买人(的损失),就可能判以特定履行购买不动产。 与普通法一样,衡平法通过司法接纳或通过明确的制定法条款,成了美国法律的一部分。目前,这两个法律制度在许多美国司法管辖区中得以融合(始于1848年的纽约),因而,在这些司法管辖区以及联邦的实践中只存在一种形式的民事诉讼。只有为数很少的州还保留着单独的衡平法院。尽管如此,提及这一历史演变仍然是很重要的,因为它一方面解释了许多当代法律概念(如财产法中的所有权分割)的起源和意义,另一方面,它仍然与做出某些裁决有一定的关联,比如是否有权获得陪审团的审理(这仅发生与普通法的讼案中,在其它案件中仅由法官审理)。另外,这种区别将决定“通常的”普通法赔偿金救济是否适用或者是否可以使用“特别的”衡平法特定履行救济。 “判例法”代表了整个的法官造法体系,而且在现代还包括了普通法和衡平法先例。在不准确的和令人迷惑的用法中,“普通法”和“判例法”这两个术语通常被当作同义词来使用,在这里,“普通法”这个术语一般代表着法官制定的法,以示区别制定法。“判例法”总是代表着法官制定的法律,而“普通法”则相对来说,根据想表达的意思不同,要么代表普通法主题事项(即具体问题)上法官制定的法律,要么在更广范围内指所有法官制定的法律。 第二课法律职业 第一部分律师协会 法律职业的规范主要是各州的事务,每一各州对于执业许可都有其自己的要求。大多数州都要求三年的学业和法律学位。各州自行管理本州申请律师资格的书面考试。不过,几乎所有的州都利用“多州律师资格考试”,这是一种长达一天的多项选择测试,在这项考试之外,各州还会再增加一次主要是关于其本州法律的时长一天的论文考试。大多数申请人都可以通过第一次考试,而且许多失败者都会在下一次考试中通过。每年有四万多人通过这些考试,在经过人品调查之后,他们便可获准在相应的州执业许可。在获得许可之前或之后都不要求实习。到各联邦法院执业的许可规则互不相同,但一般来讲,那些获准在州最高法院执业的律师在办理一些无关紧要的手续之后即可获准在联邦法院执业。 律师执业范围通常仅限于一个地区,因为尽管律师可以代表当事人到其它地区办理事务,但是一个人只能在其获得许可的州内执业。人们习惯雇用本州的律师办理其它洲的事务。但是,只要一个人已经在其获得职业资格的州执业达一定时间(通常是五年),那么他移居到另外一个州时通常无需考试便可获得执业许可。 律师不仅可以从事法律事务,还允许从事任何其他公民能从事的事务。执业律师在企业客户的董事会中工作、从事商业或者积极参与公共事务都是很平常的事情。律师即使在成为法官、政府或者私人企业集团的雇员或者法律教师之后仍然是律师协会的会员,他们可以辞掉这些其它事务,回头开始私人执业。为了在工商业中担任重要的执行职务而放弃执业的律师人数相对较少。这一职业中的流动性和公共责任感的一个例证是哈兰·菲斯克的职业生涯,他曾多次成为一名纽约州律师、一名教授和哥伦比亚法学院院长、美国总检察长和美国最高法院首席大法官。 律师并不按照职责进行正式的划分。在英国对诉讼律师和非诉律师的区分并没有移植到美国,既不存在拥有特别或者专有出庭权的职业群体,也没有专门制作法律文书的职业群体。美国律师的业务范围包括出庭辩护、咨询和起草文书。另外,在被广泛地成为“法律执业”的范围之内,律师的业务范围是专有性的,不对其他人开放。在出庭辩护领域,这种规则非常清楚:任何个人都可以代表其自己出庭,但除了一些基层法院之外,只有律师可以代表他人出庭。不过,律师不得代表他人参与一些行政机关设立的具有司法性质的正式程序当中。在咨询和起草法律文书领域的界限并不是太清晰,比如在在联邦所得税领域的法律执业和会计执业之间就是如此。但是,纽约最高法院的一个裁决表明了大多数美国法院的严格标准,该裁决认为,一个获准在外国执业单位获准在纽约执业的律师不得在纽约对客户提供法律咨询,即使该意见仅限于该律师获准执业的该外国的法律。但是,一个外国律师可能获准在一个州执业,而且无需获得许可便可以以一个外国法律顾问的身份向美国律师提供法律咨询。 1

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