语言学笔记 Lecture1

语言学笔记

陈银2014/2/28

Teaching Goal of This Course

?To get a scientific view on language;

?To understand some basic theories on linguistics;

?To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of

language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;

?To prepare for the future research work.

Teaching Plan Introduction:

?18-week academic term (including a 2-week holiday, one week revision )

?Each week: 2-hour teaching

?Main teaching material

《语言学教程》第四版胡壮麟北京大学出版社

?Auxiliary teaching materials

《语言学概论》蓝纯外语教学与研究出版社

PPT & handouts

Distribution of Grades

?10 % Attendance

?10 % Classroom Behavior

?10 % Assignment and oral presentation

?70 % Examination

?The final examination paper will cover all the materials used and all works done during

class time and after class time.

Requirements:

?Attendance is a “must”for every student.

?Complete all the tasks required.

?Self-discipline is necessary.

?Be attentive and interactive in classroom discussion and presentation.

?Self-study is desirable.

?Preview and review the lessons or do some further reading.

Group Work

Group work requirements:

1.Oral English (30%)

2.PPT design (30%)

3.Key points coverage (40%)

Lecture 1

Objectives:

Students are to know the following:

1.Why study language

2.What is language

3.Design features of language

1. 1 Why study language

Some myths about language

?Language is only a means of communication.

?Language has a form-meaning correspondence.

?The function of language is to exchange information.

?English is more difficult to learn than Chinese.

?Black English is not standard and should be reformed.

?Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.

?Language operates by rules.

?All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of

lexicogrammar and a system of semantics.

?Everyone speaks a dialect.

?Language slowly changes

?Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.

?Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.

?Writing is derivative of speech.

1. Why study language

?People know very little about language

?Stereotypical opinions about language

?“English is for commerce, German for warfare, French for women,

Italian for friends, Spanish for worship of God.”(Charles V, the

Spanish Emperor)

?Language A is superior to language B.

?Superstitions about language: curses and swears

?People know perfectly where and when and how to say what

?Language is an integral part of our life and humanity.

Yet we know little or even have wrong ideas about it.

Where does language come from? How? When?

Why is language human-specific?

Why can a child learn his/her mother tongue so easily?

How can we say one thing but mean another?

Language has a form-meaning correspondence.

The function of language is to exchange information.

Future Career Goals may include:

In the field of Academia:

?Research and Teaching specializing in one or more of the many inter-disciplinary fields of

Linguistics

In the field of education:

?Curriculum design and planning

?Language and literacy policies

?Museum exhibitions & educational programs

?Teaching:

?languages

?TESOL(teaching English to speakers of other languages)

?literacy

In business:

?Technical Writing

?Toy Industry

?Literacy in the Workplace

?Advertising

?Telephone Companies

In the field of health:

?Socio/Psycho-linguistic Research

?Speech pathology

?Speech Analysis/Forensic Linguistics

In government:

?Foreign affairs

?Justice (e.g. courtroom interpreting)

?Immigration

?First Nation affairs

?Forensic linguistics

In the field of Artificial Intelligence:

?Computational Linguists/Linguists working in areas such as:

?Speech recognition programming

?Language recognition programming

?Lexicography/semantic variation

?Multilingual programming

?Natural Language Research

The importance of language study

1，Language plays a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings.

2，If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.

Language can mean

?what a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)

?the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare’s language, Luxun’s language)

? a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose,

colloquial language)

?the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community

(e.g. Chinese language, first language)

?the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)

? a tool for human communication. (social function)

? a set of rules. (rule-governed)

1.2 What is language?

Different senses

Poor language

Shakespeare?s language Business language

The English language A student of language Competence

Idiolect

Variety

Abstract system Universal system

2. What is Language?

Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.

--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)译：“语言”是言语功能的社会产物，也是社团成员所能够接受的允许个人使用言语功能的必要规则的集合。

“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”(语言是一种纯粹人类行为的、非本能的，交流思想、表达情感和愿望的方式，通过一个系统自然产生的符号。)

--Edward Sapir (1884-1939):

Language: An Introduction to the

Study of Speech (1921)

“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”

--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965)& George Trager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)

“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.”

--George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949)

“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”

--Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)

Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”

--Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964)

“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”(语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。)

--Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)

“The question …What is language?? is comparable with -- and, some would say, hardly less profound than -- …What is life??, the presuppositions of which circumscribe and unify the biological sciences... it is not so much the question itself as the particular interpretation that the biologist puts upon it and the unravelling of its more detailed implications within some currently accepted theoretical framework that nourish the biologist's day-to-day speculations and research. So it is for the linguist in relation to the question ‘What is language??”

--John Lyons (1932- ): Language and Linguistics (1981)

“... in a sense all definitions [of language] are, by themselves, inadequate, since, if they are to be more than trivial and uninformative, they must presuppose ... some general theory of language and of linguistic analysis.”

--R. H. Robins (1921-2000): General Linguistics (1989)

“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”

--Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)

“Language is a means of verbal communication.”

?It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.

?It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad

understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as

nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.

-- Our textbook (2011)

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (《语言学教程》（第三版）2006)

Language is

?Instrumental: purposeful act

?Social: a social semiotic

?Conventional: all users same-rule governed

Language as a system

?Elements in language are arranged according to certain rules systematically.

?Sound system (in every language, there are a fixed number of sounds)

?Meaning system:

?words and sentences

?It is a creative system.

E.g. The newly elected President promised he would never beat his sharp-tongued wife again.

Language as vocal

?The medium of language is sound, no matter how well developed its writing system is.

Writing is based on speaking. Sound waves serve as the channel for sending and receiving language.

?1) Historically, speech is prior to writing : speech existed long before writing came into being. Some languages have no writing system today.

?2) Written forms represent the individual sounds, e.g, Japanese, English, French.

We do not have to look at or touch the speaker to catch what s/he says.

?Speech and writing have their own advantages and disadvantages separately as medium

of communication.

Language as symbol

? A symbol is something which by custom or convention represents something else.

Language is an arbitrary symbol system in which a sound stands for an object, an act, or an idea, etc. That is to say, words are associated with objects, ideas and actions by convention.

?As symbol, language is composed of form and meaning. The language system is in fact a

system of semiotic relationship.

Language as human

?Only human is able to use language, i.e. language is human specific. Other animals may

communicate in one way or another, but they cannot use language in the true sense of the word.

?People have attempted to teach language to various animals, (e.g. chimpanzees), but none

of them succeeded.

?No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor

but honest.

---Bertrand Russel

Language as communication

?Language is used for communication. It allows people to say things to each other and

express their communicative needs, e.g. to ask for and give information, to ask others to do things for them and to express their feelings.

1.2 Language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

译：语言是人类用于交际的有声符号系统。

Language is a system

?Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t

be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.

Language is arbitrary

?Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g.

“pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.

Language is symbolic in nature

?Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by

any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare

Language is primarily vocal

V ocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.

Language is human-specific

?Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess,

e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.

1.3 Design Features of Language

Language distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.

Human language is …unique?

?Arbitrariness

?Duality

?Creativity

?Displacement

1.3.1 Arbitrariness

?Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.

A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.

——Shakespeare

?Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with

onomatopoeic words:

?The dog barks wow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.

Objections VS. Responses

Arbitrariness at the level of words

Objection: The linguistic forms of onomatopia seem to have a natural basis.

eg. Hush(嘘)，Tick Tock(时钟的滴答声)，Ewwww...(表示恶心)

Response: Arbitrary and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time.

eg. 狗叫声：Wang (Chinese) Wow (English)

?Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.

?He came in and sat down.

?He sat down and came in.

?He sat down after he came in.

?Arbitrariness V.S. Convention

?The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.

Arbitrariness at the syntactic level

?Objection: There is a certain correspondence between the sequece of sentences and the real happenings.

eg.He came in and sat down.

?Response: The sequence of sentenses does NOT necessarily correspond with the real happenings.

eg. He sat down before he came in.

?Language is at the same time conventional. That is, once a sound or combination of

sounds is used to refer to an object/ thing in existence, people can not change them at will. Arbitrariness only means that we can not prove that there is any logical connection between the signifier and the signified.

?Once a sound form is used to stand for an object /concept, all members of the

language community should follow suit, to use the signifier to signify the signified.

Otherwise communication would be impossible.

In class Discussion

Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?

Answer

Eg. creak / cuckoo / bang / roar / buzz / hiss / neigh / mew / bleat

In class Discussion

?Is onomatopoeia (sound-imitating word) arbitrary? Or do the words such as

“cuckoo”, “peewit”, “crash”” etc be ar a non-arbitrary connection between their form and their meanings?

?Does the arbitrariness of language prove Shakespeare’s famous saying?

?“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet; so Romeo would, were he not

Romeo call’d, retain that dear perfection which he owes without that title.”

?玫瑰要是换了个名字，它的香味还是同样的芬芳，罗密欧要是，换了别的名字，他

的可贵的完美，也绝不会有丝毫改变。

In-class Discussion: Match the following onomatopoeia

Apes Roosters Hens Chicks Bulls Cows Ducks Cats Frogs Goats Pigs Mice Dogs Crow Peep Cluck Gibber Mew Croak Quack Bellow Moo Squeak Bark Grant bleat

Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?

Answer

No matter whether you say “Yes”or “No”, you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic, we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like “murmurous” and “murderous”. They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but “murmurous”more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but “murmurous” is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while “murderous”is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.

A story about Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.”Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?”If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981:15) Answer

No, these two parts cannot interchange. Yes, it is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortless by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.

1.3.2 Duality

?By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of

the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization ---Lyons, (1982:20)

“二重性指拥有两层结构的这种特征，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。”

Primary units ‘words’(meaningful) consist of secondary units ‘sounds’(meaningless Duality

Primary—/buk/ /b/+/u/+/k/—Secondary

?Hierarchy of language: stratification as ‘the infinite use of finite means?.

?Sounds > syllables > morphemes > words > phrases > clauses > sentences/utterances > texts/discourses

In-class Discussion

Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph? Answer

Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’calls.

1.3 Design features

Duality 二层性

?Language is hierarchical and the units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.

?Each level has its own principles of organization.

1.3.3 Creativity

?Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to

create new meanings.

?Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood

by people who have never come across that usage before.

?Birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures communicate in some way, but

the information imparted is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages.

?Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to

form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.

?The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of

sentences. For instance:

?He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school

which was known for its graduates who ...

? A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed.

1.3.4 Displacement

?Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which

are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.

?Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away from us.

?Animal communication is normally under “immediate stimulus control”. For

instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger.

?Human language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered

by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state

?The honeybee's dance exhibits displacement a little bit: he can refer to a source of

food, which is remote in time and space when he reports on it.

? A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.

?Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet

exist.

?Displacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle

generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote “non-things”, such as truth and beauty.

Cultural transmission

----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).

?Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have

systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.

In-class Discussion

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/0814335798.html,munication can take many forms, such as sigh, speech, body language and

facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?

Answer

On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means “OK/YES”for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying “NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.

2.Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?

专八语言学真题

1. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language? D

A. Arbitrariness.

B. Productivity.

C. Cultural transmission.

D. Finiteness.

2.The famous quotation from Shakespeare's play “Romeo and Juliet” …A rose by any other name would smell as sweet’well illustrates _______. A

A.the conventional nature of language

B.the creative nature of language

C.the universality of language

D.the big difference between human language and animal communication

3. One of the properties of language is that a language user can understand and produce sentences he/she has never heard before. This property of language is called ______ B

A. duality

B. productivity

C. displacement

D. arbitrary

4. Which of the following is NOT a design feature of human language? D

A. Arbitrariness.

B. Displacement.

C. Duality.

D. Diachronicity.

5. Which of the following may be the exception to the feature of arbitrariness of language? c

a. native English words

b. borrowed words

c. echoic words

d. one-syllable words

6. One of the property of language is that there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. This property of language is called________. D

A. duality

B. productivity

C. displacement

D. arbitrariness

7. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what we mean by __________. C

A. duality

B. productivity

C. displacement

D. arbitrariness

Homework

1. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language”that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussion which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.

2. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.

3.3?

3.What do you think of Betrand Russell’s observation of the dog language, “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings?

Team Work for Group 1

1.5 Functions of Language

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(现代语言学理论与流派)【圣才出品】

第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：

I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar

《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

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语言学概论第一节课官方笔记目录 一、课件下载及重播方法 二、本章/教材结构图 三、本章知识点及考频总结 四、配套练习题 五、其余课程安排 一、课件下载及重播方法 二、教材节构图

三、本章知识点及考频总结 第一部分语言和语言学 ◆模块一认识人类的语言 知识点一语言的性质和类型 （一）语言的概念 语言是一种符号系统，是由语音和语义构成的符号系统，是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。 （二）人类语言与其他动物鸣叫系统的区别是： 1、内容更多： 表达无极限（时间、空间），想说、可说、能说。 2、用处更大： 交际、标志、记录、思维、认知等功能。 3、能够创造： 极强的生成能力和极高的运转效率。

注意：只有人类才有语言人类具有语言能力，是人跟其他动物区别的最重要的标志 （二）语言和民族、国家的关系 确定不同的语言，首先涉及的是语言跟民族和国家的关系 1.语言是识别民族和国家的标志——“相互能够听懂”（欧洲国家） 相同民族——相同语言；同一国家——同一语言 2.语言并非识别民族和国家的标志（欧洲以外的国家） 犹太人的语言与民族身份；海外华人的民族身份与语言；满族与满语 3.西方学界的双重标准——“相互能够听懂” 弱国——用语言识别民族；对“汉语”的看法。 强国——不用语言识别民族，美国、英国、澳大利亚和加拿大 （三）语言的特点和语言类型 1、语言的特点 不同的语言有自己的特点，各种语言在语音、词汇、语法方面差距显著。根据语言的特点，把语言进行分类，主要有“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类” 2、语言的类型 （1）语言的谱系分类

从语言的“历时”角度划分不同的语言，建立“语言的谱系分类”, 即语言的亲属关系分类。根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。 谱系分类是一个层级系统：语系—语族—（语支）—语言—方言—次方言（土语） 语系：语系是谱系分类中最大的类，语系、语族、语支、语群这种谱系分类的层级体系，反映了原始基础语随着社会的分化而不断分化的历史过程和结果。 世界上的语言大致分为七、八个语系。印欧语系和汉藏语系（区别在于是否有区分意义的声调和词的形态变化）语族：语系的下一级叫语族，同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源，相似点也更多，如印欧语系下分印度语族、伊朗语族、日耳曼语族等。 （2）语言的形态分类 即语言的结构类型分类。主要分为两种： ①形态语（综合性语言） 通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言，主要有屈折语（词的形态变化丰富，如德语、俄语）、黏着语（词的形态变化为前后词缀，如维吾尔语、日语） ②孤立语（分析性语言）——汉语 语法手段无需谓词词形变化表现“时、体、态”；无需

语言学 重点笔记 考研可用

Chapter 1 Introduction Teaching objectives To define language and its defining features ◆To distinguish the distinctive terms in linguistics ◆To master functions of language Teaching difficulties 3 origins 4 scholars’ viewpoints 5 defining features 6 distinctive terms 7 functions of language What is language? Sapir’s definition (1921) “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols 语言是人类所独有的，用任意创造出来的符号交流思想、感情和愿望的非本能的方法。——撒皮尔，1921 Hall’s definition (1968) Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.” 语言是人们通过惯用的任意口头—听觉符号进行交际 和互动的惯例。——霍尔，1968 Chomsky’s definition (1957) “From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentence, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.” 从现在起，我将语言看作是一系列（有限的或无限的）句子，每个句子的长度有限，并由有限的成分组合而成。——乔姆斯基，1968 许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统. 当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介; 当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具; 当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols Used for human communication. 语言是一个用于人类交际的、具有任意性的语音符号系统。 The design/defining features (识别性特征) Arbitrariness （任意性） Productivity/Creativity（创造性） Duality （双重性） Displacement （空间移位性） Cultural transmission（文化传递） Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.

胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点-自己整理的)

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness 1.3.2 Duality 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement 1.4 Origin of language

《语言学纲要》(叶蜚声_徐通锵)详细复习资料_课堂讲义笔记

语言学纲要讲义笔记 导言 一、语言的定义 语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具、是由音义结合的词汇和语法构成的一种符号系统。 二、语言学的对象和任务 语言学是研究语言的科学。 要把语言学跟语文学区分开来 中国传统语文学——“小学” 小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。 在古印度，公元前4世纪，著名学者潘尼尼在整理、注释婆罗门教经典《吠陀》时，写了一本《梵语语法》，提出3996条规则，被人们称为最完备的语法书。在古希腊，伯拉图和亚里斯多德是从哲学的角度来研究语言的，他们讨论了词为什么具有意义等内容。 三、语言学在科学体系中的地位 语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 1、与社会科学、自然科学的联系 语言研究的成果是哲学、历史学、考古学、文学、政治学、经济学、逻辑学、社会学、民族学、计算机科学等学科所必须利用的，可见语言研究在这些社会科学中已占重要地位。 语言学与其他学科相交叉产生社会语言学、心理语言学、计算语言学、生物语言学、模糊语言学、实验语音学等。如：运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为五个阶段： 编码——发送——传递——接收——解码 对这一具体过程的解释需要结合物理学、生理学、心理学等其他学科的知识。三、语言学的基本类别 总体上，根据研究对象的不同，语言学可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学两大类。（一）理论语言学可分为： 1、一般/普通语言学

2、个别/具体语言学 具体语言学 （1）历时语言学 （2）共时语言学 （二）应用语言学 1、社会语言学：研究语言与社会集团的关系。如地域方言、社会方言、语言的接触、语言规划等。 2、心理语言学：研究儿童语言习得、语言的接收和发生过程，等。 3、神经语言学 最近二十年才从心理语言学中分离出来的一门新的学科，主要研究语言和大脑结构的关系，中心是大脑如何生成语言。 此外，还有数理语言学、统计语言学、实验语音学等。 第一章语言的功能 第一节语言的社会功能 一、语言的信息传递功能 信息传递功能是语言的最基本的社会功能。 人类还借助语言之外的其他形式传递信息，它们是文字，旗语，信号灯，电报代码，数学符号，化学公式等等。 身势等伴随动作等是非语言的信息传递形式。 身势等非语言的形式多半是辅助语言来传递信息； 文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的再编码形式； 旗语之类是建立在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式； 语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段，是最重要的交际工具。二、语言的人际互动功能 语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这就是语言的人际互动功能。互动包括两个方面：一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。

语言学概论00541史上最全(吐血整理) 汇总 简单题+名词解释 小抄笔记

27.书面语：书面语是用文字记录的语言形式，它是文字产生或在口语的基础上产生的，书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。 26.口语：就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式。它是书面产生的基础。 28．语言相关论：语言相关论是萨丕尔和沃尔夫提出的关于语言与思维关系的观点，主张语言决定思维，不同的语言就有不同的思维方式。 29．大脑语言功能临界期：大脑语言功能临界期是指大脑的单侧化，大脑左半球的分区以及语言的遗传机制，都只提供人具有语言能力的潜在可能性，这些潜能必须在一定期限内被一定的语言环境激活才可能起作用。26．语言符号的所指 :语言符号的所指是符号的形式所指的意义内容。 29．机器翻译：通过计算机把一种语言自动翻译成另一种或多种自然语言的信息处理技术。 26.语音：语音是人的发音器官发出的、用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音。 27.词：词是最小的、有意义的、能够独立运用的语言单位。 28.语用：语用指语言运用，即人们在一定的交际环境中对语言的实际运用。 29.文字：文字是记录语言的书写符号系统。 27．单纯词：单纯词是由一个构词语素构成的词。 29．屈折：屈折是通过词的内部发生语音的交替变换来改变词的语法意义的手段。 28．意译词：是用本族语言的构词材料和规则构成新词，把外语中某个词的意义翻译过来。 27.仿译词：是用本族语言的语素逐个对译外语原词的语素造成的词，它不仅把原词的词义翻译过来，而且保持了原词的内部构成方式。 29．主谓词组：两个成分之间具有被说明和说明关系的词组是主谓词组。 27．复辅音：一个音节内处于同一个肌肉紧张的渐强阶段或渐弱阶段上的两个或两个以上辅音的组合。 27.双语现象：某一言语社团使用两种或多种语言的社会现象，具体而言是社团内的全体成员或部分成员双语并用的现象。 28.亲属语言：从同一种语言中分化出来的各个语言叫亲属语言，亲属语言之间具有历史同源关系。 26．调位：利用音节内的音高差别来起辩义作用的语音单位叫做调位，调位是一种非音质音位，依附在音位的组合序列上。 29.词组：实词与实词之间具有直接联系的相对独立的词群。 28．语素：语素是语言中音义结合的最小单位。 28．词尾：附着在词干后的，能改变词的语法形式，但不能构成新词的语素。 29．语素：音义结合的最小语言单位。 26．词类：词类是词在语法上的分类。它指可以替换出现在语法结构某些共同组合位置上的词的类，即具有聚合关系的词的类。 27．词法：（1）词法主要描写词的形态特征和词形变化规则。例如，俄语的名词在形式上有单数和复数的区别，有阳性、阴性、中性等性的区别，有主格、宾格、属格等格的区别，这些都是典型的词法现象。（2）由于印欧语言中构词单位、构词方式和词类都与词的形态变化相关，因此构词和词类问题也成为词法的一部分。27．语法意义：语法意义是语法形式所体现的意义，是语言中通过一类形式或功能所获得的意义。二者相辅相成，不可分离。如“动词+名词”有动宾关系的意义，汉语所有的同类组合都是如此，这种意义就是一种语法意义。 27.语法形式：语法形式就是能体现表达某种语法意义的形式。表示某一类语法意义或者有共同作用的形式，如词类形式、组合形式、虚词形式，就是语法形式。语法形式不是个别的语音形式和词语形式，但能产生某一类意义或者有共同作用的语音表现形式或者词形变化形式也是语法形式。 27.语法手段：根据语法形式的共同特点所归并的语法形式的基本类别叫做语法手段。语法手段可分为词法手段和句法手段两大类。通过词形的变化来表现语法意义的形式是词法手段；通过结构的变化来表现语法意义的形式是句法手段；例如英语名词后加s表示复数，英语动词后面加ed表示过去时，就是词法手段中的词形变化。 28．自源文字：自源文字指独立发展起来的文字。如古埃及文字、苏美尔文字、汉字，这些文字的形体、体系都是由最早使用该文字的人们独创的。 29．语音合成（1）语音合成是语音信息处理研究中的主要工作。 （2）语音合成就是让计算机模拟人的发音器官的动作并发生类似的声音。如汉语的语音合成目前已初步实现自动生成声韵调结合的音节。 26．句子:句子是词或词组按一定规则组合成的、能表达相对完整的意义、前后有较大停顿并带有一定的语气和句调的语言单位。 27．异化：语流中两个相同或相近的音，其中一个因受另一个影响而变得不相同或不相近。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解-第6~12章【圣才出品】

第6章语言与认知 6.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成 3. First language acquisition 第一语言习得 4. Cognitive linguistics 认知语言学 常考考点： 语言习得；第一语言习得；语言的理解和生成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。 本章内容索引： I. Definition of cognition II. Definition of Psycholinguistics III. Language acquisition 1. The Behaviorist Approach

2. The Innateness Hypothesis IV. Language comprehension 1. Sound Comprehension 2. Word recognition 3. Comprehension of sentences 4. Comprehension of text V. Language Production 1. Access to words 2. Generation of sentences 3. Written language production VI. Cognitive Linguistics 1. Definition 2. Construal and Construal Operations (1) Attention/ Salience (2) Judgment/ Comparison (3) Perspective/ Situatedness 3. Categorization (1) Basic level (2) Superordinate level (3) Subordinate level 4. Image Schemas 5. Metaphor

索绪尔及其《普通语言学教程》之心得

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