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英语语言学—中文版

英语语言学—中文版
英语语言学—中文版

单元练习......76页

英语语言学概论

—自学指导

主编: 支永碧王永祥

英语语言学概论

—自学指导

主编: 支永碧王永祥

副主编:李葆春丁后银王秀凤

前言

本书主要为参加英语专业(本科段)自学考试和全国研究生入学考试的考生而编写,是《英语语言学概论》(王永祥、支永碧,2007)的配套辅导用书。

自2007年起,《英语语言学概论》(王永祥、支永碧,2007)被确定为英语专业(本科段)自学考试的指定教材。在此期间,许多参加自学考试的考生希望能再出一本配套的辅导教材。他们中的不少人不仅希望自学考试轻松过关,还希望和全国其他学生一样将来能参加全国统一的研究生入学考试继续升造求学。而现有的教材内容和相关练习似乎还不能充分满足他们的需求。其一,配套练习尚不够全面,缺少问答题的参考答案;其二,和研究生入学考试真题相比,配套练习的类型也不够全面;其三,参加自学考试的学生往往很难得到老师的亲自授课和指导,而英语语言学理论和概念往往抽象难懂,再加上其它各种原因,不少考生不能轻易地掌握各章的所有重点、难点,因此,他们迫切需要有一本简单实用的自学考试指南和辅导练习帮助他们解决问题;此外,在英语专业研究生入学考试中,英语语言学是一门必考科目。入学以后,英语语言学也是英语专业研究生的一门必修课。鉴于此,他们希望了解更全面的英语语言学基本理论,多做一些更实用的英语语言学练习和真题,以备将来需要。为了满足广大自考学生和准备参加英语专业研究生入学考试的考生的需要,我们在广泛征求了各方面的意见之后,精心编写了本书。本书的编写除了主要参照王永祥、支永碧主编的《英语语言学概论》以外,我们还参考了胡壮麟主编的《语言学教程》(修订版)和戴炜栋、何兆熊主编的《新编简明英语语言学教程》和其它一些高校使用的语言学教程。

本书第一部分为英语语言学核心理论和概念,主要包括:本章主要考点,课文理解与重点内容分析;第二部分为英语语言学概论的十三章单元配套练习,和原教材中的练习稍有不同的是,在本部分,我们选编了部分自学考试真题和各个高校历年考研真题,以便考生更好地了解本章重点。这样,学生可以更有针对性地进行各章节的学习和复习。虽然该部分略有难度,但对考研和自考的学生都很有帮助;第三部分为英语语言学综合模拟试卷, 内容紧扣《英语语言学概论》,针对性很强,适用于英语专业各类考生;第四部分为江苏省自学考试英语语言学概论部分考试样题及参考答案。本书的习题主要包括以下七种类型:问答题、选择题、填空题、名词解释、是非判断题、汉英术语互译题、操作题。另外,为便于学习者了解考试重点,本书附加了江苏省英语专业(本科段)《英语语言学概论》自学考试新大纲2007版;另外,为便于自学者查询深涩难懂的语言学词汇,我们按照汉语字母顺序编写了常见的英语语言学术语汉英对照表,以补充原教材的些许缺失。

本书力求充分满足广大考生学习和考试的需要,帮助他们了解各章的主要考点和复习要点。祝参加英语专业自学考试的考生轻松克服《英语语言学概论》的学习难题,祝参加英语专业研究生入学考试的考生在本书的帮助下能轻松通过英语语言学这个难关,实现自己的梦想。

支永碧

2009年2月于南京师范大学随园

Contents

前言……………………………………………………………………………………………?

第一部分?核心理论与概念………………………………………………………………

Chapter1: Language ………………………………………………………………………?

本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………?Chapter 2: Linguistics ……………………………………………………………………?本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………

Chapter 3:?Phonetics ………………………………………………………………………?本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………?Chapter4:Phonology ………………………………………………………………………

本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………?

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………

Chapter5:Morpholog y……………………………………………………………………?

本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………

课文理解与重点内容…………………………………………………………………………

Chapter6: Syntax …………………………………………………………………………?本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………?

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………

Chapter7: ?Semantics ……………………………………………………………………?本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………?

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………?

Chapter 8: ?Pragmatics ……………………………………………………………………?本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………

课文理解与重点析…………………………………………………………………………?

Chpater9: ?Discourse Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………

本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………?

Chapter 10: ?Sociolinguistics………………………………………………………………

本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………?Chapter 11: Psycholi

nguistics………………………………………………………………

本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………?

Chapter 12:Linguistic Theoriesand FL T…………………………………………………

本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………?

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………

Chapter 13: Schools of Modern Linguistic s………………………………………………?

本章主要考点…………………………………………………………………………………?

课文理解与重点内容分析……………………………………………………………………

第二部分英语语言学概论单元配套练习与参考答案……………………………………?

第三部分英语语言学概论综合模拟试题与参考答案……………………………………

第四部分江苏省自学考试(本科段)《英语语言学概论》样题…………………………?

参考文献………………………………………………………………………………………?

附录I英语语言学理论专业术语汉英对照表……………………?…………………………附录II江苏省自学考试(本科段)《英语语言学概论》考试大纲(2007年11月)……

第一部分核心理论与概念

第一章语言(Language)

●课文理解与重点内容分析:

本章介绍语言的基本知识,包括语言的定义、语言的识别性特征和语言的功能。

1.?语言的定义

语言是用于人类交际的任意性的发音的符号系统。该定义有五个要点,即系统、任意性的、发音/声的、系统、用于人类交际。

2.?语言的识别性特征

语言的识别性特征指人类语言区别于任何其他动物交流系统的特点。主要包括:

1)能产性:能产性也称创造性,人们能用语言创造新的意义,并立即被从未接触过它的人所理解。创造性归因于语言的二重性和递归性。

2)离散性:

3)不受时空限制的属性/位移性:人类语言可以让使用者表达说话时(时间和处所)并不存在的物体、事件和观点。这一特性赋予人们概括和抽象的能力。

4)任意性:任意性是语言的核心特征,指符号的形式或声音与意义间没有理据或逻辑关系。任意性有不同的程度。

5)文化传递性:语言不是靠遗传,而是通过教与学,由人们接触的文化代代传递的。

6)结构二重性:二重性指底层有限的语音结构是上层词、句和语篇结构的组成成分,每层都有自身的组合规则,使语言拥有强大的能产性。

7)互换性:互换性指人可以是信息的发出者,也可以是信息的接收者。

3. 语言的功能

按照韩礼德的表述,幼儿语言有如下七个功能:

1)工具功能:说话人可以使用语言做事情。

2)调节功能:语言可用来控制事件。

3)表现功能:语言可用来传达知识、汇报事件、进行陈述、说明、解释关系、传递信息等。

4)互动功能:语言可用来与周围的人进行交际。

5)自指性功能:语言可以用来表达个人的情感并展示个性。

6)启发功能:使用语言可以获得知识、了解世界。语言可以用于学习,语言可以用于问答、用于争辩,用于验证假设、推导结论和新奇发现。

7)想象功能:语言用于创造想象系统,可以是文学作品、哲学领域里,也可以是空想、白日做梦和发呆遐想。

成人语言有三大元功能:人际功能、概念功能和语篇功能。

国内著名学者胡壮麟等人在其《语言学教程》中,用如下词语来表达语言的七大功能:

1)信息功能:被认为是语言最主要的功能。

2)人际功能:语言最重要的社会功能。人们通过它建立和维持在社会中的身份和地位。

3)施为功能:主要改变人物的社会地位,使用的语言非常正式,有时甚至成为一种礼节。

4)感情功能:用以改变听者的感情。它又可当成表达功能,但表达功能还包括自言自语。

5)客气/寒暄功能:指有助于说明、维持人际关系的表达。

6)娱乐功能:如婴儿的咿呀学语、歌者的吟唱、对歌等。

7)元语言功能:指可以用语言来讨论语言本身。

第二章语言学(Linguisitics)

1.?语言学的定义

语言学是对语言的科学研究,它研究在各自社会中作为交流系统的各种人类语言的基本原理。语言学家的任务不是学习怎样使用某一特定语言,而是考察和研究每一个语言是如何构造的,一个语言如何产生出以及产生出怎样的方言差异、阶级差异,一个语言是如何一个时期一个时期变化发展的,儿童是如何习得母语的,以及一个人是如何以及应该如何学习外语的等等。

1.1莱昂斯的区分:

普通语言学和描写语言学(General linguisticsand descriptive linguistics) 共时语言学和历时语言学(Synchroniclinguistics anddiachronic lingui stics)

理论语言学和应用语言学(Theoretical and appliedlinguistics)

微观语言学和宏观语言学(Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics)

1.2 王钢的区分:把语言学分为五大范畴如下:

具体语言学和普通语言学(Specific linguistics and general linguistics)

描写语言学和历史语言学(Descriptivelinguistics and historical li nguistics)

历史比较语言学和对比语言学(Comparative historical linguisticsandcontrastivelinguistics)

微观语言学和宏观语言学(Microlinguistics andmacrolinguistics)?

理论语言学和应用语言学(Theoretical linguistics andappliedlinguistics)

(1)”具体语言学”以某一具体语言(如汉语)为研究对象。以英语为研究对象的叫英语语言学。普通语言学探索人类语言的普遍性质的一般规律,它是建立在总结概括具体语言学研究成果的基础之上的。

(2)”描写语言学”也称”共时语言学”,”历史语言学”也称”历时语言学”。

(3)”历史比较语言学”利用语言学中专门的历史比较法研究具有共同来源的所谓”亲属语言”的历史发展。”对比语言学”是对两种以上的语言(不论亲属)通过比较来研究其结构的异同。

(4)”微观语言学”是对语言系统内部各个方面进行的研究,因此,语音学细粉为发声语音学、听觉语音学和声学语音学三个”孙分支”。”宏观语言学”位于语言学的外围,包括语言学和其它科学相结合而合成的各门边缘学科。

(5)”理论语言学”研究语言的一般理论,是普通语言学的雅称。”应用语言学”有广义和狭义之分。广义的应用语言学包括把语言应用于解决交际问题的诸方面。狭义的应用语言学专指外语教学(和教学法)的研究。

2. 语言学的科学性

一般说来,语言学研究的科学程序包括以下几个步骤(文秋芳1995:9):

1)收集语言数据

2)根据所得数据建构一个初步规则

3)通过更多的数据验证初步规则,并作出必要的修正

4)最后提出一个能够解释或说明有关数据的规则或理论

与此类似,梅德明(2003:2)就语言研究的科学步骤总结如下:

1)观察语言事实

2)概括语言事实

3)提出假设解释语言事实

4)通过更多的观察检验假设

5)建构某一个语言理论

语言学成为一门科学有下列下列要素:穷尽性、一致性、简洁性和客观性。语言学是关于语言的科学,自然应该建立在对语言素材和资料的系统研究上,因为这一研究的宗旨是发现语言的本质特征,挖掘语言的潜在系统。一个语言学家往往是怀着某种语言假设去从事研究的,在研究中不断地检验、证明或推翻自己既有的假设。为了使其分析具有科学性,语言学家的工作遵循上述四条准则。”穷尽性”指语言学家应收集并分析所有既得资料或数据,并给予充分的解释,不能丢三落四。”一致性”指在分析过程中前后观点要一致,至少不能前后矛盾。”简洁性”指字进行复杂的分析或证明当中应力求语言的简洁,不拖泥带水,不冗长乏味。”客观性”指实事求是,一是一,二是二,不凭主观臆断妄加取舍,乱下结论。

3.?语言学的主要分支学科

语言学的主要分支学科有:语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等等。

4. 语言学中的重要区别

(1)共时和历时(synchronic and diachronic)研究

“共时研究”也称描写语言学,研究语言在某个时期内相对稳定的系统。”历时研究”也称历史语言学,研究语言在不同时期之内的发展和演变。如,谚语研究中的英语发展史,英语词源学等。

(2)语言和言语(langue and parole)

语言(langue)一词指一个社会所有成员所共享的抽象的语言体系,言语(parole)指语言的实际运用,即语言的实现。语言是抽象的,谚语是具体的,是一定时空中的言语事件;语言不是任何社会个体所讲的东西,言语却总是自然的言语事件中的有机成分;语言相对稳定、系统,言语却受个人和情景等因素支配。在索绪尔看来,言语是一堆杂乱无章的言语现象或素材,因此它不适于系统的研究,语言学家的任务应该从言语实例中抽取或提炼出语言来,即寻找和发现支配着所有言语实例的语言规则,并使之成为语言学研究的对象。

英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)

一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 (一)课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业(本科段)的一门重要的专业理论课程,其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识,掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论,了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用,熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物;通过该课程的学习,考生可以从不同的角度了解语言(的性质),了解语言学习和语言教学,为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是:专业术语多,概念多,内容抽象,所以,考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程,如高级英语、泛读(三)、写作等,这样可以减少语言障碍,有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 (二)本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编,计十三章。第一编(一至二章)介绍了语言和语言学;第二编(三至八章)介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学;第三编(九至十二章)为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学,以及语言学理论与外语教学;第四编(十三章)介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习,要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求: 1、掌握语言的性质、功能,以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念; 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论; 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用; 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 (三)本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程,其含盖范围很广,既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学,又涉及许多交叉学科,如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学(包括语言学理论与外语教学),以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中,词汇学与语言学关系最为密切,词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读(三)、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系,这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴,日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究,这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标

英语语言学概论精选试题学生版

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《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章) 2013-6-1 Chapter I Introduction2012 I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: T1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. F2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure. F3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. T4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. F5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. T7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. F11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. T12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. F13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性);语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为);语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说)等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观);语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为);普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义);;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学)等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调)等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生);词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干)等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格);一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用);里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义);句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化); 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为);合作原 320240*********

英语语言学概论

英语语言学概论 GE GROUP system office room 【GEIHUA16H-GEIHUA GEIHUA8Q8-

Chapter 1 Language语言 1.Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3.arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4.symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5.discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7.duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.

英语语言学概论第五章笔记

语义学 1.?什么是语义学? . 语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。 2. 语义研究的几种主要理论 1)命名论 . , , , . . 命名论是最原始的语义理论,是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。 2)意念论 ; , . 意念论认为,语言形式及其所代表的对象之间(即语言与现实世界之间)没有直接联系;确切地说,在理解语义时,是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。 3)语境论 . : . 语境论以这样的假设为基础:人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种:情景语境和语言语境。 语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境,语义不是抽象的,它存在于语境之中,它来自语境,取决于语境。 4)行为主义论 “ .” , , . 语义的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处,它也把语义放到语境中去研究,但它更注重人的心理活动,认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。 3.意义和所指 . 它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。 1). ; . . 意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和,它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。 简单地说,意义是词汇内在的,抽象的,游离于语境之外的意义。 2), ; . 所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西;涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。简单地说,所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。 4.主要意义关系

1)同义关系 . . 同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。 , : a)–. . 方言同义词-用在不同地域方言中的同义词。 英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。 示例: 英国英语美国英语 b)–. , . , , , . 文体同义词-在文体上有差异的同义词。 有同样意义的词可能在文体上,或者在正式程度上有所不同。也就是说,有些往往比较正式,有些比较随意,有些在问题上则是中性的。 示例: , , , , , , , , c) , . 情感意义或评价意义有所不同的同义词。 有着相同的意义却表达了使用者的不同情感的词语,这些词暗示使用者对他所谈论的事情的态度或倾向。 示例: 合作者同谋者,帮凶 , , , , , , , , , d)–. , ., . . 搭配同义词-同义词在其搭配上各不相同,即能和这些不同的同义词相配的词各不相同。示例: … … … e)–. 语义上不同的同义词-同义词的意义非常接近,但却有细微差别。 示例: 暗示困惑和迷惑暗示难以置信 意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事意味匆匆离开 2)多义关系 . , . , .

英语语言学概论-简答题

1.Synchronic vs diachronic Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 2. Langue and parole Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, It does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 3. Competence and performance Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. 4. Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example, while photo and copy are both arbitrary, the compound word photocopy is not entirely arbitrary. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. The arbitrary nature of language is a sigh of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 5. Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear are saying or hearing for the first time. 6. Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. 7. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop. 8. Cultural transmission While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 9. Broad transcription and narrow transcription: Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only, this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. 10. Sense and reference Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. 11. Context It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of

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