重点12

Differential geometry based active fault tolerant control for aircraft$

P.Castaldi a,N.Mimmo a,n,S.Simani b

a Department of Electrical,Electronic and Information Engineering-University of Bologna,Faculty of Aerospace Engineering,Via Fontanelle40,

47121Forlí(FC),Italy

b Department of Engineering-University of Ferrara,Via Saragat1/E,44124Ferrara(FE),Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received15July2012

Accepted23December2013

Available online3February2014

Keywords:

Active fault tolerant control

Differential geometry

Non-linear geometric approach

Fault diagnosis

Disturbance decoupling

Aircraft

a b s t r a c t

This work shows how to use a differential geometry tool to design a novel nonlinear active fault tolerant

?ight control system for aircraft.The proposed control scheme consists of two main subsystems:a

controller,which is designed for the nominal plant,and a fault detection and diagnosis module,which

provides fault estimation.A further feedback loop exploits the fault estimation to accommodate faults

affecting the system.The estimate convergence and the stability of the active fault tolerant?ight

controller are theoretically proved.Finally,high?delity simulations show the effectiveness of the

scheme.

&2014Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

1.Introduction

A conventional feedback control design for a complex system

may lead to unsatisfactory performance,or even instability,in the

event of malfunctions affecting actuators,sensors or other system

components.This is particularly important for safety-critical

systems,such as aircraft applications.In these cases,the effect of

a minor fault in a system component,in particular the actuators,

can lead to catastrophic consequences.

To overcome these drawbacks,fault tolerant control(FTC)

systems have been developed in order to tolerate component

malfunctions,while maintaining desirable stability,and perfor-

mance properties.

In general,FTC methods are classi?ed into two types,i.e.

passive fault tolerant control(PFTC),and active fault tolerant

control(AFTC)schemes(Blanke,Kinnaert,Lunze,&Staroswiecki,

2006;Mahmoud,Jiang,&Zhang,2003;Zhang&Jiang,2008).

In PFTC systems,controllers are?xed,and designed to be robust

against a class of presumed faults.This approach,which offers only

limited fault-tolerant capabilities,does not need any fault estimate

(or detection)or controller recon?guration.In contrast to PFTC,

AFTC systems react to the faults actively by recon?guring the

control actions,so that the stability and acceptable performance of

the entire system can be maintained.AFTC schemes rely heavily on

real-time fault detection and diagnosis(FDD)schemes,which are

exploited for providing the most up-to-date information about the

true status of the https://www.sodocs.net/doc/271412478.html,ually,this information can be used

from a logic-based switching controller or a feedback of the fault

estimate.The approach proposed in this paper relies on the latter

strategy.

Over the last three decades many FDD techniques have been

developed,see the survey works(Benini,Castaldi,&Simani,2009;

Ding,2008;Isermann,2005;Simani,Fantuzzi,&Patton,2003;

Theilliol,Join,&Zhang,2008;Witczak,2007).Regarding the AFTC

system design,it was argued that effective FDD is needed

(Mahmoud et al.,2003;Zhang&Jiang,2008).Moreover,it was

claimed that,for the system to react properly to a fault,timely and

accurate detection and location of the fault itself are needed.Fault

detection and isolation(FDI)is the area where research studies

have mostly been explored.On the other hand,FDD schemes

represent a challenging topic because they have to provide also

the fault estimate.FDI and FDD schemes usually exploit dynamic

observers or?lters.Unfortunately,disturbance affecting the sys-

tem can cause false alarms or,even worse,missed faults.Robust-

ness issues in FDI and FDD are therefore very important(Blanke

et al.,2006;Chen&Patton,1999;Isermann,2005;Witczak,2007).

This paper presents an innovative differential geometry appli-

cation together with a novel non-linear geometric approach

(NLGA)results in the?eld of AFTC for aerospace systems.For the

?rst time the standard NLGA procedure presented in Persis and

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

journal homepage:https://www.sodocs.net/doc/271412478.html,/locate/conengprac

Control Engineering Practice

0967-0661/$-see front matter&2014Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/271412478.html,/10.1016/j.conengprac.2013.12.011

Abbreviations:AFTC,active fault tolerant control;FDD,fault detection and

diagnosis;FDI,fault detection and isolation;NLGA,non-linear geometric

approach;AF,adaptive?lters

☆This paper is an extended version with new methodological and applicative

results of the work entitled“Fault Tolerant Control Schemes for Nonlinear Models

of Aircraft and Spacecraft Systems”presented at the18th IFAC World Congress held

in Milan,September

2011.

n Corresponding author.

E-mail addresses:paolo.castaldi@unibo.it(P.Castaldi),

nicola.mimmo2@unibo.it(N.Mimmo),silvio.simani@unife.it(S.Simani).

Control Engineering Practice32(2014)227–235

Isidori(2001)has been extended to the input fault scenario in the presence of fault estimation feedback.

In particular the applied AFTC is based on an extended version of the FDD module,designed in Castaldi,Geri,Bonfè,Simani,and Benini(2010)for the case of sensor faults.

It is worth observing that in Castaldi et al.(2010)the FDD module is used only for fault estimate and the fault feedback is not present,as for the case of the proposed AFTC system.For this reason new proofs,given in the following,are provided to assess the convergence of the fault estimate to the actual fault.

The?lter structure is derived using the coordinate change of the NLGA theory developed in Persis and Isidori(2001),which is only the starting point for the?lter design.The application of the NLGA to the aircraft longitudinal model is investigated,in order to obtain fault estimates decoupled from disturbance and/or other faults.In this paper the actuator fault estimation is accomplished by adaptive?lters(AF)which,designed by using the NLGA,are analytically decoupled from relevant wind components.For the case of the design of the FDI module via the NLGA,see the paper by Bonfè,Castaldi,Geri,and Simani(2007).

The fault estimates provided by the proposed NLGA–adaptive ?lters(NLGA–AF)are unbiased via the above-mentioned disturbance decoupling.It is worth observing that the adaptive?lters not using the proposed NLGA procedure are not decoupled from disturbances and/or other fault.The proposed FDD module thus increases the reliability of the overall AFTC system.Note that the problem of the exact decoupling of disturbance and other faults,proposed in this paper,has not been solved previously by other authors.

Moreover it is important to observe that also the design of the control systems proposed in this work is based on differential geometry tools.The suggested controller presents novel issues with respect to other schemes relying on differential geometry already present in the related literature.With reference to the paper by Castaldi,Mimmo,and Simani(2011)the design of the controller has been completely modi?ed and based on the differ-ential geometry approach.This provides a novel controller that allows us to achieve the stability of the overall AFTC system.In particular,the novel controller has been designed by exploiting some concepts from two well known theoretic tools:exact feed-back linearization(Isidori,1995)and singular perturbation(Khalil, 2002).In particular,starting from the proposed aircraft model, proper controllers are designed via the exact feedback lineariza-tion tool,and assuming suitable virtual control inputs.In this way, the complete system is linear,and exponentially stabilizable.

The overall AFTC scheme,consisting of the proposed controller and the fault accommodation method,shows several interesting properties.To the best of the authors0knowledge,the designed controller,the FDD modules,and the whole scheme represent innovative results.

Finally,the novel aircraft AFTC system,based on the differential geometry tool and the NLGA,has been tested on a high-?delity simulator.It implements realistic disturbance,such as sensor measurement noise and wind,thus showing the effectiveness and the good performance of the proposed AFTCS.

The paper is organized as follows.

Section2describes the structure of the proposed AFTC:the theoretical and practical design of the NLGA–AF,the estimation properties and convergence proof are given in Section2.1;Section 2.3presents the controller design process and its stability proof. The overall AFTCS stability proof is given in Section2.4.

Section3provides more details regarding the simulator,while Section4shows the effectiveness and robustness of the AFTC aerospace system by means of extensive simulations.

Concluding remarks are drawn in Section5.All symbols and equations used in this paper to describe the aircraft model have been listed in Appendix A.2.Differential geometry based AFTC

Fig.1describes the adopted structure of the AFTC scheme where u is the controller output,x is the state vector,y and y ref are the measured and the reference output vectors,respectively. The vector f is the actuator fault,while^f is the estimated actuator fault.Therefore,Fig.1shows that the AFTC strategy is obtained by integrating the FDD module with the control system.The FDD module,consisting of a bank of NLGA–AFs,provides the correct estimation^f of the actuator fault f,as it will be proved in Theorem1.This estimated signal is injected into the control loop in order to compensate the effect of the actuator fault.Thanks to this fault estimation feedback the controller can be easily designed considering the fault-free plant(Fig.2).

2.1.NLGA–AF based FDD module

This section describes the implementation of the FDD module. It is proved that the fault estimation provided by NLGA–AF and exploited in the overall AFTC scheme is unbiased.Note that in the works by the same authors Bonfè,Castaldi,Geri,and Simani(2006, 2007)and Castaldi et al.(2010)related to the FDI scheme design, the fault estimate does not depend on the fault estimate itself due to the further feedback loop.Moreover,in Castaldi et al.(2011)the proof of convergence of the fault estimation was left as an open problem here formally solved for the?rst time.Finally some interesting properties related to the dynamics of the estimation error are given.

The FDD module is based on the NLGA approach,where a coordinate transformation highlights a sub-system affected by the fault and decoupled by the disturbances.This subsystem is the starting point to design a set of adaptive?lters.They are able to both detect additive fault acting on a single actuator and estimate the magnitude of the fault itself.The proposed approach can be properly applied to the nonlinear af?ne model of the system in the form:

_x?nexTtgexTeuà^ftfTtp

d

exTd

y?hexT

(

e1T

where x A X(an open subset of R?n)is the state vector,uetTA R?c is the control input vector,fetTand^fetTA R?f are the fault vector and its estimate,respectively.The vector detTA R?d is the disturbance vector(including also the faults which have to be decoupled,in order to perform the fault isolation)and y A R?m is the output vector,while nexT,the columns of gexT,and p dexTare

smooth

Fig.1.Logic diagram of the integrated AFTC

strategy.

Fig.2.Altitude and airspeed controller.

P.Castaldi et al./Control Engineering Practice32(2014)227–235 228

vector ?elds,and h ex Tis a smooth map.The design strategy for the diagnosis of the fault f with the NLGA disturbance decoupling is shown in Persis and Isidori (2001)and summarized in the following:

computation of ΣP

n ,i.e.the minimal conditioned invariant distribution containing P (where P is the distribution spanned

by the columns of p d (x ));

computation of Ωn ,i.e.the maximal observability codistribution

contained in eΣP n T?

;

if ?ex T=2eΩn T?,fault detectability condition,the fault is detect-able and a suitable change of coordinate can be determined.

As mentioned above,the considered NLGA to the fault diagnosis problem is based on a coordinate change in the state space and in the output space,Φex Tand Ψey T,respectively.They consist of a surjection Ψ1and a function Φ1such that Ωn \span f d h g ?span f d eΨ1○h Tg and Ωn ?span f d Φ1g ,where:Φex T?ex 1;x 2;x 3TT ?eΦ1ex T;H 2h ex T;Φ3ex TTT Ψey T?ey 1;y 2TT ?eΨ1ey T;H 2y TT

(

are (local)diffeomorphisms,while H 2is a selection matrix,i.e.its rows are a subset of the rows of the identity matrix.This transformation can be applied to the system (1)if and only if the fault detectability condition is satis ?ed.The system (1)in the new reference frame can be decomposed into three subsystems,namely x 1,x 2,and x 3,where the ?rst one is always decoupled from the disturbance vector and affected by the fault as follows:_x 1?n 1ex 1;y 2Ttg 1ex 1;y 2Teu à^f Ttl 1ex 1;y 2

;x 3Tf y 1?h 1ex 1T(

e2T

where n 1,the columns of g 1and l 1are smooth vector ?elds,h 1is a smooth map.The variable y 2in (2)is assumed to be measured and considered as an independent input.With reference to (2),the NLGA –AF can be designed if the detectability condition in Persis and Isidori (2001),and the following new constraints are satis ?ed:

the x 1-subsystem is independent from the x 3state components;

the single fault is modeled as a step function of the time;hence an entry of vector f ,f s ,is a constant to be estimated;

there exists a proper scalar component x 1s of the state vector x 1such that the corresponding scalar component of the output vector is y 1s ?x 1s and the following relation holds (Castaldi et al.,2010):

_y 1s et T?M 1et Tef s à^f s

TtM 2et Te3T

where M 1et Ta 0;8t Z 0.Moreover M 1et Tand M 2et Tcan be com-puted for each time instant,since they are functions only of input and output measurements.In particular,in the absence of unmea-sured states (i.e.x 3is not present),the following relations hold:M 1et T??g 1ex 1;y 2T s

M 2et T??n 1ex 1;y 2Ttg 1ex 1;y 2Tu s

e4T

where,for actuator faults,?g 1ex 1;y 2T s ??l 1ex 1;y 2T s .The subscript

s indicates the s -th scalar component of the dynamics _x

1in (2).In the following,the function dependence on time t will be omitted.The relation (3)describes the general form of the system under diagnosis.Under these conditions,the design of the adap-tive ?lter is achieved,with reference to the system model (3).

It provides a fault estimate,^f s

et T,which asymptotically converges to the magnitude of the fault f s .Let us assume that the subsystem (3)is determined with the proposed NLGA procedure.Then f s can be estimated by means of the following adaptive ?lter using the

least-squares algorithm with forgetting factor (Castaldi et al.,2010).The adaptation law is given by the following:_P ?βP à11tN P 2 M 21

;P e0T?P 040_^f s

?P ;ε M

1

;^f s

e0T?0:8><>:e5T

where P 40is the adaptive parameter,βZ 0is the forgetting factor,εis the normalized estimation error and the term N 2?

1t M 21

is the normalization factor.The following equations repre-sent the output estimation,and the corresponding normalized estimation error:^y 1s ? M 1^f s t M 3tλ y 1s

ε?11tN ey 1s à^y 1s T:8

><>:e6TMoreover,the proposed adaptive ?lter adopts the signals M

1, M 3, y 1s

which are obtained by means of a low-pass ?ltering of the signals M 1,M 2,y 1s as follows:_ M 1?àλ M 1tM 1; M 1e0T?0_ M 3?àλ M 3tM 3; M 2e0T?0_ y 1s ?àλ y 1s ty 1s ; y 1s e0T?0:8>><>>:e7Twhere M 3?M 2àM 1^f s and λ40is a parameter related to the bandwidth of the ?lter.Thus,the considered adaptive ?lter is described by the systems (5)–(7).

2.1.1.NLGA –AF estimate properties

It is worth noting that the relation _ M 3?àλ M 3tM 3?

àλ M 3tM 2àM 1^f s

represents a linear time varying system,hence it is possible to describe the term M

3as the sum of two scalar variables,namely M

31and M 32,such that:_ M 31?àλ M 31tM 2; M 31e0T?0_ M 32?àλ M 32àM 1^f s ; M 32e0T?0 M 3? M 31t M 328>><>>:e8TLemma 1.The considered adaptive ?lter for FDD is described by (5)–(7).The asymptotic relation between the normalized output

estimation error εand the fault estimation error ef s à^f s

Tis the following:lim t -1

εet T?lim

t -1 M

1et T1tN 2et T

ef s à^f s et TT

e9T

Proof.The following auxiliary system is de ?ned in the form:_y 1?àλy 1t_y 1s ;y 1e0T?0_y 2?àλy 2tλy 1s ;y 1e0T?0y ?y 1ty 28><>:

e10TNote that _y 1?àλy 1t_y 1s ?àλy 1tM 1f s

tM 3.Hence,by com-puting its integral,it is possible to write:

y 1et T?Z t

0e àλet àτT_y 1s

eτTd τ?Z t

0e àλet àτTeM 1eτTf s tM 3eτTTd τ

?

Z t 0e àλet àτTeM 1eτTf s tM 2eτTàM 1eτT^f s

eτTTd τ? M 1f s t M 31àZ

t

0e àλet àτTeM 1eτT^f s

eτTTd τe11T

P.Castaldi et al./Control Engineering Practice 32(2014)227–235229

From (8)it is possible to write:

M

3? M 31àR t

e àλet àτT

eM 1eτT^f s

eτTTd τ.Similarly:y 2et T?λZ t

e àλet àτTy 1s eτTd τ?λ y 1s

e12T

Consider now the following candidate Lyapunov function:

V ?12ey ày 1s T

2

e13T

that is trivially positive de ?nite and radially unbounded.Moreover,its ?rst time derivative is _V ?àλey ày 1s

T2e14T

Since _V is trivially negative de ?nite 8y a y 1s

,V is a Lyapunov function that globally asymptotically tends to zero.Moreover,from (11)and (12),the following relation holds:

lim t -1

y 1s ?lim t -1

y ?lim t -1

e M 1f s t M 31tλ y 1s

à

Z

t

e àλet àτTeM 1eτT^

f s

eτTTd τTe15T

By means of (6)it results

lim t -1

ε?lim

t -11

1tN

2

ey 1s à^y 1s

T?lim t -11

1tN 2

e M 1ef s à^f s

TT□e16T

2.1.2.Estimation asymptotic convergence proof

With reference to the AFTC scheme in Fig.1it is possible to de ?ne the following fault estimation problem.

Problem 1.Fault estimation for AFTC.

The estimation of f s requires the design of an adaptive ?lter for the model (3),and therefore of the overall system of Fig.1.This estimate,f s ,asymptotically converges to the magnitude of the step function fault,f s .

The next theorem proves the asymptotic convergence of the fault estimate in the presence of a feedback of the fault estimate itself.This represents one of the main differences with the FDI case described in Castaldi et al.(2010)

Theorem 1.The adaptive ?lter described by (5)–(7)represents a solution to Problem 1,so that ^f s et Trepresents an asymptotically convergent estimation of the step fault f s .Proof.The following function

W ?12e^f s àf s T

2e17T

is trivially positive de ?nite and radially unbounded.Moreover,its ?rst time derivative is _W ?e^f s àf s

TeP ε M 1Te18T

It is worth noting that the smoothness property of the involved

functions allows us to apply the asymptotic approximation of (16)with the expression of (18).

lim t -1

_W ?lim t -1

e^f s àf s

TeP ε M 1T?lim t -1àe^f s àf s T2P 1N

2 M 21o 0e19T

In fact,P et T40;8t 40since P

à1

et T?e àβt

te àβt

Z

t

e βτ

M 21

eτT1t M 1

eτT

d τe20T

with P 040,P (t )is positive 8t Z 0.□

2.1.

3.Estimation error convergence rate Lemma 2.The normalized error is given by

εet T?

11t M

1

et T?y 1s e0Te àλt t M 1et Tef s à^f s et TT e21T

Proof.From (10)using integration by parts it is possible to obtain:y et T?y 1s et Tày 1s e0Te àλt

e22T

Moreover,it has been proved that:y et T? M 1et Tf s t M 3et Ttλ y 1s

et Te23TBy comparing (22)and (23),it results:y 1s et T?y 1s e0Te àλt t M 1et Tf s t M 3et Ttλ y 1s et Te24Tthat replaced in (6),it yields to (21).

□

Remark 1.The term y 1s e0Te àλt is the initial condition response of

the low-pass ?lters.It is possible to assume that this initial condition transient response is negligible at the time of the fault occurrence.Hence,if the fault occurs at the time t ?0it is possible to write :_y 1?àλy 1t_y 1s ;y 1e0T?0

_y 2?àλy 2tλy 1s ;y 2e0T?y 1s e0Ty ?y 1ty 28><>:

e25TThe equation of the normalized error is approximated by the expression:εet T?

11t M 1

et T

? M 1et Tef s à^f s et TT e26T

Remark 2.With reference to the dynamics of the estimation error,

by recalling _^f s ?P ε M 1?P M 1

11t M 1

? M 1ef s à^f s

T e27T

and the de ?nition of the estimation error e rr ?^f s àf s it is possible to obtain:_e rr ?àP M 211t M 21e rr

e rr e0T?à

f s

8<:

e28T

Now it is possible to show a further interesting property related to

the dynamics (convergence rate)of estimation error,i.e.the

boundedness of a et T?P M 21=e1t M 21

T.It is easy to see that a et T40,8t 40since M 21=1t M 21

40,8 M 140.Moreover,also P et T40,8t 40since P

à1

et T?e àβt

P 0

te àβt

Z

t

e βτ

M 21

eτT1t M

21

eτTd τ

e29T

with P et T40since P 040.Furthermore,in the proposed case

study,the following relations hold:0o M

1m r M 1r M 1M o 1e30T

hence,the expressions below hold true:

1P 0à1β M 21M 1t M 21M !e àβt t1β M 21M

1t M 21M

"#à1

r P et Tr 1P 0à1 M 2

1m 1t M 1m

!e àβt t

1 M 21m

1t M 1m

"#à1e31T

P.Castaldi et al./Control Engineering Practice 32(2014)227–235

230

and also for P (t )holds 0o P m r P r P M o 1.Finally:0o P m M 21m

1t M

21m

r a m

?min ea et TTr a et Tr max ea et TT?a M r P M M 21M

1t M

21M

o 1

e32T

2.2.FDD design for throttle and elevator faults

The NLGA methodology showed in Section 2.1can be directly

applied only to systems that are af ?ne with respect to both inputs and disturbances.One fault can be isolated from disturbances and other faults if an observable subsystem can be determined.In this section the NLGA –AF methodology is applied to the aircraft case.Moreover,the hypothesis introduced for model approximation and the adaptive ?lters obtained are shown.In the following the disturbance,W w x ,that will be decoupled is the vertical wind gust:_x ?n tg eu à^f tf Ttp d W w x

y ?h (

e33T

where the dependence of n ,g and p d ,on x has been omitted.The term f ??f δe ;f δth T represents the fault vector.The disturbance vector ?eld is p d ??0;V sin γcos γ;cos 2γ;0;e1=4I y TρVSc 2C mq ;0 T .Problem 2.Elevator Fault Estimation.

Let us consider the model in (33)and isolate,if possible,the elevator fault,f δe from other faults (throttle)and disturbances (vertical wind gusts).

Solution.The dynamic system solving the considered problem is derived in the following.It has been obtained by applying the procedure stated in Section 2.1with γsatisfying the relations cos γ%1àγ2and sin γ%γ.This approximation is needed to allow for the NLGA application.

The ?lter is decoupled from both aerodynamic disturbance and the other fault (throttle).It is possible to specify the particular expression of the faulty dynamics of (3)for f s ?f δe :_y 1s ;δe ?M 1;δe f δe tM 2;δe y 1s ;δe ?14I y ρVSc 2C mq γàq M 1;δe ?à12I y ρV 2ScC m δe M 2;δe ?14I y ρVSc 2C mq ??γ1

T àD àmg sin γeTt

t1m L àmg cos γeT!à1I y 12ρV 2Sc C m 0tC m ααàtC m q q c 2V tC m δe δe 8>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>><>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>:e34TIt is worth observing that M 1;δe et Tis a 0,8t Z 0,since V is always strictly positive in all the ?ight conditions.

Problem 3.Throttle Fault Estimation.

Let us consider the model in (33)and isolate,if possible,the throttle fault,f δth from other faults (elevator)and disturbances (vertical wind gusts).

Solution.The ?lter for the diagnosis of f δth has been obtained by following the same procedure adopted for solution of Problem 2.

In this case no model approximation is needed.

_y 1s ;δth ?M 1;δth f δth tM 2;δth y 1s ;δth ?ωM 1;δth ?C 2eC 3àC 4H T

I M 2;δth ?à

Q f I tP E I ωàP P I ω

8>>>>>>>><

>>>>>>>>:e35T

Note that the term M 1;δth is always greater than zero for altitude assumed by the simulated aircraft.

2.3.Differential geometry based ?ight control system

This section presents an altitude and airspeed autopilot for a longitudinal dynamics of an aircraft.It is worth highlighting again one of the main points of the paper.The singular perturbation analysis allows us to simplify the controller design phase.In particular,the whole controller can be divided into two controllers,one for the fast dynamics and the other for the slow dynamics.Each controller has been designed with a differential geometry tool,i.e.the Feedback Linearization technique,useful to guarantee overall asymptotic stabi-lity.The stability proof is based on the joint use of Lyapunov function and singular value perturbation theory,which is particularly suitable for aircraft application due to the presence of natural fast (short period)and slow (phugoid)dynamics.The controller design is further-more simpli ?ed since the fault accommodation task has been already accomplished with the strategy presented at the beginning of this section,i.e.the model for the controller design is considered not affected by faults.

2.3.1.Aircraft model for controller design

Starting from the common and comprehensive aircraft model literature,the following assumptions have been introduced for designing purposes:

drag coef ?cient,C D ?C D 0tC D αα; lift coef ?cient,C L ?C L 0tC L αα; small attack angle,i.e.cos α%1;

small thrust climbing effect,i.e.j T sin αj 5j L j ;

small thrust pitching effect,i.e.j Td T j 5j M j ;

The longitudinal aircraft dynamics can be well approximated by a singular perturbed model where two dynamics can be recognized:the reduced system (phugoid)and the boundary layer system (short period and engine mode).Due to the previous assumptions and singular perturbation,the aircraft model is described as follows:_χ

1?f 1eχ1Ttg 1eχ1Tz 2χ02?f 2eχ1;χ2Ttg 2eχ1;χ2Tu z 1?h 1eχ1Tz 2?h 2eχ2T

e36T

where χ1??H ;V ;γ T ,χ2??α;q ;ω T ,z 1??H ;V T ,z 2??α;T eωT T ,u ??δe ;δth T .The term χ02indicates the derivative respect to the slow time τ.Note that τ?t =?where ?51is the singular perturba-tion parameter.

2.3.2.Slow dynamics controller

By means of the singular perturbation approximation it is possible to assume that while the slow variables are changing,the fast ones are at their asymptotic equilibrium points.In this way the simpli ?ed slow subsystem can be modeled as an input af ?ne model where a static feedback linearization is possible.In this case the vector relative degree is equal to the slow state order (three)leading to a controlled phugoid without zero dynamics.

P.Castaldi et al./Control Engineering Practice 32(2014)227–235231

2.3.3.Fast dynamics controller

By following the considerations above,it is possible to assume that the slow variables are?xed,while the fast ones are changing.Under these hypotheses,the fast subsystem dynamics are described as an input af?ne model that can be controlled and stabilized by means of static feedback linearization.In particular the vector relative degree is equal to the fast subsystem order(also in this case it is three),thus implying the possibility of an exact linearization and avoiding possible unstable zero dynamics.The fast dynamics controller design is comp-leted by feeding the fast subsystem itself with the designed control law as a reference signal.In this way,the regulated fast variables have to follow the reference value provided by the slow controller.

Remark3.The overall controller for airspeed and altitude con-troller has been designed starting from the work(Farrell,Sharma, &Polycarpou,2003)but with some remarkable improvements brie?y summarized in the following:

engine dynamics:typically the time scale of engine dynamics is of the same order of that of the short period;

no time derivatives of the reference commands have been used,

i.e.no derivatives computation or their estimation/approxima-

tions have to be performed;

2.3.4.Controlled aircraft stability proof

Theorem2.Asymptotic stability of the controlled aircraft.

Let the singular perturbed aircraft with the proposed controller and consider an equilibrium point,namelyχe??χ1e;χ2e T.The equili-brium point is locally asymptotically stable.

Proof.The proof is based on the application of Theorem11.4of Khalil(2002).It is very easy to verify that the controlled fast and slow subsystems are both linear(due to the exact static feedback linearization).Hence these two subsystems are locally exponen-tially stable and,as stated in Khalil(2002),this represents a suf?cient condition in order to assure the asymptotic stability of the equilibrium point for the overall complete system.

2.4.Active fault tolerant control stability proof

Theorem3.Active fault tolerant control system asymptotic stability. Consider the aircraft model and the autopilot de?ned in Theorem2 and the fault estimation feedback given by(5)–(7):

_x?fexTtgexT?uàe

f

_e

f

?àC f e fe37TSuppose an equilibrium point for the augmented system(where the augmented states are the fault estimation errors),namely z e??x e0 T,then the equilibrium point is locally asymptotically stable. Proof.Let us start by showing that the fault estimation error dynamics,_e f?àC f e f,has a local asymptotic stable equilibrium point at the origin.This can be obtained by recalling results achieved for the FDD stability.Moreover it is always possible to?nd a real constant,λf, greater than zero,given the Lyapunov function V fee fT,such that:

V f?1

2e T f

e f

_V f ?àe T

f

C f e f ràλf J e f J2

8e f:J e f J o d fe38T

For exampleλf can be equal to the modulus of smallest eigenvalue of C f(that are strictly negative).

In the same way,it can be shown that the?ight path control system with its plant(i.e.the aircraft)has a local asymptotic stable equilibrium point at the reference point.It is possible to select the modulus of smallest eigenvalue of the controlled aircraft,namely λx,and assume that:

ν?e1àdTVtdW

_ν?e1àdT_Vtd_W ràλx‖x‖2

8x:J x J o d xe39Twhere x is the aircraft state.

The last step consists of building a Lyapunov function for the cascade system(37).As stated in Isidori(1999)a cascade of two systems having their origin locally asymptotically stable is also locally asymptotically stable.In fact,let N?V fee fTtν:

8e f x:J e f J o d f J x J o d x

N?V ftν40

8e f x:J e f J o d f J x J o d x

_N?_V

f

t_νràλx‖x‖2àλf J e f J2e40Tthat proves the theorem.□

3.Simulator description

3.1.Aircraft,engine,propeller,actuators and environment

The simulated aircraft is a piper PA-30for which very detailed NASA and Lycoming technical data are available.NASA technical notes(Fink&Freeman,1969;Gray,1943;Koziol,1971)describing the aircraft and propeller aerodynamics and the engine manual (Lycoming O-320Operator0s Manual,1973)for engine modeling have been implemented for simulation purposes.Appendix A summarizes the main technical issues from the above-mentioned works.Fig.3shows the details of the simulator structure and its block diagram.It is worth observing that the simulator performs the updating of both the air density,ρ,and the gravity acceleration modulus,g,by implementing the reference U.S.Standard Atmosphere(1976)and World Geodetic System(1984)respec-tively.Finally,the elevator and throttle actuators have been modeled as suggested in Stevens and Lewis(1992).

Fig.4depicts,on the basis of what is prescribed in Pilot0s Operating Handbook(1993),the simulated?ight envelope which corresponds to the actual piper PA-30?ight envelope(Fig.5).

3.2.Wind

The1àcos wind gusts,modeled as in https://www.sodocs.net/doc/271412478.html,itary Speci?-cation(1980),are generated by means of the“Discrete Wind Gust Model”block available in the“Aerospace Blockset”of Matlab-Simulink(Aerospace Blockset,2010).In particular,the

simulated

Fig.3.Simulator structure.

P.Castaldi et al./Control Engineering Practice32(2014)227–235 232

vertical wind gusts are described into the inertial frame.When an aircraft ?ights into a variable vertical wind there is always a rotational wind ?eld associated to it.The rotational wind ?eld causes a pitching moment due to air relative pitch rate.Also this effect has been taken into account during simulations.Further-more the Dryden turbulence model (https://www.sodocs.net/doc/271412478.html,itary Handbook,1997;https://www.sodocs.net/doc/271412478.html,itary Speci ?cation,1980)(translational and rotational)has been implemented by using the “Dryden Wind Turbulence Model ”in the “Aerospace Blockset ”of Matlab-Simulink (Aerospace Blockset,2010).

3.3.Input and output sensors

The simulator implements a model of the measurement system as follows:

the command surface de ?ection angles are acquired by poten-tiometers whose errors are modeled as white noises;

the angular rate measurements are given by 2gyroscopes of an IMU (inertial measurement unit).The corresponding errors take into account non-unitary scale factor,alignment error (random),g-sensitivity,additive white noise and gyro drift; the attitude angle measurement is given by a digital ?ltering system of both angular rate and accelerations provided by the IMU.The corresponding errors are due to a systematic uncer-tainty generated by the apparent vertical and a colored noise due to the system structure and the environment in ?uences; the angular rate measurements provided by a gyroscope unit different from gyroscope device estimating angular rates and characterized by small drift https://www.sodocs.net/doc/271412478.html,rger bandwidths;

Air data computer (ADC):

○Errors affecting the true airspeed are due to calibration error of differential pressure sensor,additive colored noise induced by wind gusts and atmospheric turbulence and additive white noise.

○Errors affecting the altitude are the calibration error of the static pressure sensor and an additive white noise.

○Uncertainties affecting the attack angle are calibration errors affecting the wing boom sensors and additive white noise.A detailed description of the measurements used by the consid-ered system can be found in Bonfèet al.(2006).

4.Extended simulation results

This section is divided into two subsection:the ?rst one shows the performance of the NLGA –AF and the latter provides the performance of the overall AFTC system exploiting the proposed control systems described in Section 2.3and NLGA –AF reported in Section 2.2.

4.1.Aircraft NLGA –AF simulation results

In this case study the ?lters,described in Section 3,are decoupled from both aerodynamic disturbances,i.e.wind,and the other fault.Fig.6shows a fault on the elevator (dotted line)of size f δe ?11and its estimate (black and gray)during an altitude hold ?ight phase.The fault is detected,isolated and estimated with a time delay smaller than the characteristic ?ight dynamics period and the convergence of the estimate to the actual fault size is observed.The fault commences at time t ?50s.Fig.6shows that,via the NLGA design,the residual from the ?lter for the throttle fault does not exceed its thresholds even in the presence of elevator faults.The lower picture of Fig.6shows also an elevator fault estimation (gray line)that is not decoupled from wind disturbances.It is clear how the wind gust (at time 20s)affects the fault estimate (gray line)making it useless.

Fig.7shows the accurate fault estimate for the case of a fault on the throttle of size f δth ?à10%.

4.2.Performance of the aircraft AFTC systems

In this section the simulation results concerning the perfor-mance of the overall AFTC system for the proposed aerospace application are given.The performance of the controlled aircraft with or without the estimated fault feedback is compared.In this

30

405060708090100110

01

234

5Equivalent Air Speed [m/s]

L o a d F a c t o r [?]

Piper PA ?30: Flight Envelope

Fig.4.Piper PA-30simulated ?ight envelope.

-50510W x

, W h [m /s ]

Wind: linear and rotational speeds

20

40

6080100

120

-20

020q W [d e g /s ]

Time [s]

Fig.5.Simulated wind conditions.

01δt h

[%]

Fault Estimate: δth

and δ

e

1-1-1Time [s]

δe [d e g ]

Fig.6.Estimate ^f δe of f δe

fault.P.Castaldi et al./Control Engineering Practice 32(2014)227–235233

way,the bene ?ts of adopting the proposed AFTC scheme are highlighted in terms of state dynamics.

The following simulations performed in the presence of wind and noise on both input and output sensors serve to highlight the advantages of the fault recovery procedure obtained using the fault estimate feedback.Since the fault is detected,isolated and estimated with a time delay smaller than the characteristic ?ight dynamics period the ?ight can proceed normally without loss of performance.Fig.8is particularly meaningful since it compares the in ?uence of the wind gust and the effect on the altitude of the elevator fault that is not recovered.The advantages of the proposed AFTC is clear.Similar considerations hold for Fig.9that depicts the transient after the fault occurrence.It is worth observing that the results refer to the same simulation conditions (noises,disturbances,etc.).

5.Conclusion

In this paper,a novel nonlinear aircraft active fault tolerant control system was proposed.

In particular the applied active fault tolerant control is based on a fault detection and diagnosis module providing a fault estimate exploited by an additional feedback loop,thus allowing fault accom-modation.In this way,the controller can be designed on the faulty-free model.

One feature of the paper is that both the developed controller and the FDD module design are based on differential geometry.With reference to the fault detection and diagnosis module,an important point is that the fault estimates are robust with respect to disturbance and/or other fault,and hence unbiased due to the analytical decoupling provided by application of the non-linear geo-metric approach.In the aircraft case,faults were decoupled from aero-dynamic disturbances,such as vertical wind gusts and turbulences.The performance of the autopilot in the transient phases in the presence of faults was improved by the added loop providing fault recovery.

With reference to the design of the control systems,it is worth observing that it is based on two main theoretic tools:singular perturbation and linearization via static feedback .The main advan-tage of theories hybridization stays in the possibility of achieve linear,and than locally exponentially stable,reduced and bound-ary layer systems.This fascinating property has been used to claim in turn the stability of the controlled system and the stability of the overall active fault tolerant control systems.

The considered aircraft model was described in detail and the design of the controller was based both on rigorous control theory and solid aeronautical consideration.With reference to the above consideration,it is not surprising that the theory of singular perturbation has been used in developing the control system.In fact aircraft is naturally characterized by slow and fast dynamics.

The exploited high ?delity plant model and the assumed practical mathematical hypotheses were tested via extensive simulations.The results showed that the designed nonlinear active fault tolerant scheme was reliable and ready for implementation.

Appendix A.Aircraft,aerodynamic,engine and propeller model This appendix summarizes all useful models,their nomencla-ture,symbols and related references.

The aircraft model is described by the following model (Stevens &Lewis,1992).

_X

?V cos γtU w _H

?V sin γàW w _V

?1?T cos αàD àmg sin γ tV sin γcos γ?W w

z ?X

_γ?1?T sin αtL àmg cos γ tcos 2γ?W w

z

?X _α?q à_

γ_q

?d T I y T tM I y eA :1T

with the following variables:Symbol Description

Unit X

X Inertial coordinate m H Altitude m V Airspeed

m/s γAir ramp angle rad U w Horizontal wind m/s W w

Vertical wind

m/s

-15-1005-5δt h

[%]

Fault Estimate: δth and δe

-1-0.500.5

Time [s]

δe [d e g ]

Fig.7.Estimate ^f δth of f δth fault.

320

330

340H [m ]

485052545658V [m /s ]

Time [s]

Fig.8.Aircraft state with and without AFTC scheme:case of fault on δe .

320330340H [m ]

4850525456V [m /s ]

Time [s]

Fig.9.Aircraft state with and without AFTC scheme:case of fault on δth .

P.Castaldi et al./Control Engineering Practice 32(2014)227–235

234

m Aircraft mass kg

αAttack angle rad

g Gravity constant m/s2

q Body pitch rate rad/s

d T Thrust arm m

I y y-Inertia momentum kg m2 W w

z

Vertical wind component m/s

The equations describing the aerodynamics(Stevens&Lewis, 1992)are summarized below.

D?1

2

ρV2SC D

L?1ρV2SC L

M?1

2

ρV2ScC m

C D?C D

0tC D

α

αtC D

δe

δe

C L?C L

0tC L

α

αtC L

_α

_αtC L

q

qtC L

δe

δe

C m?C m

0tC m

α

αtC m

_α

_αtC m

q

qt

?W w z

?X

tC m

δe

δeeA:2T

and the meaning of the symbols is described below:

Symbol Description Unit D Drag force N

L Lift force N

M Pitch momentum N m ρAir density kg/m3 c Mean aerodynamic chord m

C D

#

Drag coef?cients–

C L

#

Lift coef?cients–

C m

#Momentum coef?cients–

δe Elevator rad

The engine(Lycoming O-320Operator0s Manual,1973)is described by the model(A.3):

_ω?àQ f

I t

P E

Iω

à

P P

Iω

P E?C1HtC2ω?δtheC3àC4HTàC5

Q f?J vω3eA:3T

whose parameters are summarized below:

Symbol Description Unit

ωPropeller angular rate rad/s

Q f Shaft friction torque N m

P E Engine Power W

I Engine-propeller inertia kg m2

C#Engine coef?cients Various δth Throttle–

J v Shaft friction coef?cient kg m2s Finally,the propeller relations(Gray,1943)are reported:

P P?C P

V cosα

ωD

ρω3D5PR

T?

2

V cosα

ηV cosα

P PeA:4T

whose variables are described below:

Symbol Description Unit

P P Propeller power W

T Thrust N

C P Prop.power coef?cient radà3

D PR Propeller diameter m

ηPropeller ef?ciency–

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2021年公司人力资源部工作总结

( 工作总结 ) 单位：_________________________ 姓名：_________________________ 日期：_________________________ 精品文档 / Word文档 / 文字可改 2021年公司人力资源部工作总 结 The work summary can correctly recognize the advantages and disadvantages of previous work, clarify the direction of the next work, and improve work efficiency

2021年公司人力资源部工作总结 自上月十二号至今，我来三星人力资源部已经有一个月了。一个月的工作学习、环境适应、思维转变……也还算是忙忙碌碌，因忙碌故而充实，然而因为充实往往日子过得似乎仓促，仓促地不暇思索。可是，当蓦然回首的时候才发现，这匆匆而过的一个月确让我有了相当程度的转变，或者说是提高。也许这时候说完成了由校园向职场的转换还为时过早，然而不可置疑的是，这一个月的锻炼让我更成熟了、更自信了、更能以积极上进的态度面对工作、生活中的问题了…… 毕业之初能来到三星这个平台是我的万幸。当前很多人主张大学生要先就业再择业，我向来不赞成，认为这不过是无奈之举，如果能有丝毫的机会还是要在就业之前择好业，做好职业生涯规划(这

丝毫的机会对每个人都是有的)。我就是在毕业之前花了相当的时间在对自我的审视和人生方向的选择上，所以说，毕业之后能够从事本专业(人力资源)工作是我的必然。不过，尽管是必然，三星人力资源部这个平台也确实让我意外惊喜，在做好了一波三折的打算之后能够顺水推舟地实现这个目标对谁都是一种万幸!对万幸的事自然不能辜负。 一、工作描述 一个月内的工作感觉繁琐、忙碌，但是总结之下要做的也不过简简单单的几件事： 一、统计分析岗位需求。定期了解各分公司的缺员情况，随时掌握人员变动状况，定期对入职人员做分类统计，有效利用岗位分析表。 二、搜寻并联系紧需人才。每天查看邹平人才网、51job、公司邮箱，筛选求职者简历，联系合格者面试，并通过其他各种途径获得所需人才信息并取得联系。 三、办理员工报名、入职手续。

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-教育精选- 七年级下册重点短语及句型 Unit 1 重点短语： 1、想加入一个英语俱乐部 want to join an English club 5、讲故事俱乐部the story telling club 7、弹吉它play the guitar 8、敲鼓play the drums 9、给……说/与……交谈talk to/with… 10、喜欢做某事like to do / doing sth 11、和…一块玩游戏play games with… 12、帮助（某人）做某事 help (sb) with sth / help (sb) (to) do sth 13、说英语的学生English-speaking students 14、打电话找某人call sb at + 电话号码 15、有空be free 16、善于与某人相处be good with sb 17、擅长做某事be good at doing sth 对……有益/好处be good for… 18、与某人交朋友make friends with sb 19、在周末on /at the weekend = on / at weekends 20. 讲故事tell stories 重点句子： 1.你会弹吉它吗？Can you play the guitar?

-教育精选- 2.你会唱歌或跳舞吗？Can you sing or dance? 3.你非常擅长讲故事。 You are very good at telling stories. 4.学校文艺表演招募学生 students wanted for school show 5.来加入我们吧！Come and join us! 6.我喜欢和人们一块谈话和玩游戏。 I like to talk and play games with people. 7.放学后你忙吗？Are you busy after school? 8.请拨293-7742找布朗先生。 Please call Mr Brown at 293-7742. 9.周末你有时间吗？（同义句）Are you free on the weekend? / Do you have time …? 10.你善于与老人相处吗？ Are you good with old people? Unit 2 重点短语： 1、去/到达学校go/get to school 2、回/到家go/get home 4、刷牙brush teeth 5、吃早餐eat/have breakfast 6、从晚上12点到早上六点from twelve o’clock

2016年托福独立写作全年汇总

2016年托福独立写作全年汇总，献给2017年备考的你 之前的每周六日都是托福考生们考试的日子，本周六则是大家欢庆圣诞的日子，2016年的托福考试已经全部结束，本文将会汇总全年的托福独立写作题目，希望备考2017年托福考试的小伙伴能够好好利用这批题目，回温一下本年的考试重点，准备迎接明年的托福考试。 1、Some people think that starting school day early is a good approach to support learning; other people think that starting school day at the later time is a good approach to support learning. Which one do you prefer? 2、In times of economic crisis, in which field do you think the government can cut financial support? 3、The high school students are required to study many different subjects at the same time or they should study only three or four subjects at a time? 4、Nowadays, children rely too much on the technology, like computers, smartphone, video games, for fun and entertainment. Playing simpler toys or playing outside with friends would be better for the children's development. 5、Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: For a student, reading on his/her own is as important as, or even more important than reading what is assigned by teachers. 6、Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: After completing high school, students should take at least one year off work or travel before they begin studying in university. 7、The university club want to help others，if you are a member of them， you only could undertake one project this year. which following would you prefer to choose? To help students at a nearby primary school with reading and mathematics; Build house for people who cannot buy or rent; Visit and assist the elderly people with daily tasks. 8、The university club want to help others，if you are a member of them， you only could undertake one project this year. which following would you prefer to choose? To help students at a nearby primary school with reading and mathematics; Build house for people who cannot buy or rent; Visit and assist the elderly people with daily tasks.

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2019年度人力资源部工作重点某集团人力资源部2019年工作总结 集团公司：

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