英语文体学 1

English Stylistics

英语文体学

Course Introduction

Course title: English Stylistics

Course hours: 2 per week, 34 in total

Assessment:

1. Attendance

2. After-class preparation for related topics

3. In-class performance and involvement

4. Quiz

5. Final exam

Teaching Objectives:

Have a systematic knowledge of the features of different varieties of language

Make appropriate use of language in our communication

Familiarize ourselves with the stylistic features of the different genres of literature

Deepen our understanding and appreciation of literary works

Offer useful ideas on translation and language teaching

Textbook: English Stylistics(英语文体学)

Other reference books:

Introduction to English Stylistics《英语文体学引论》（丁往道王佐良）

Essentials of English Stylistics 《英语文体学要略》（王守元）Practical English Rhetoric《实用英语修辞》（吕煦）

English Stylistics: A New Course book 《新编英语文体学教程》（董启明）

Course content:

本课程从英语学习的实际要求出发介绍有关英语文体和语体的基础知识，属于普通文体学的范畴。我们讨论的重点是英语中已经形成的各种变体，例如因交际媒介不同而形成的口语语体和书面语体；因语言的使用领域不同而形成的各种功能变体（广告语体、新闻语体、法律语体、会话语体、科技语体等）；因交际者双方关系不同而形成的正式语体和非正式语体等。

Chapter 1 The Concern of Stylistics

Definition of Style

Origin: Style originates from a Latin word stilus, it means:

An instrument made of metal, bone, etc., having one end sharp ended for incising letters on a wax tablet, and the other flat and broad for smoothing the tablet and erasing what is written: = stylus

Different understandings of style nowadays:

Style may refer to a person?s distinctive language habits. Eg. …Shakespeare?s style?, …Hemingway?s style?, …Lu Xun?s style?, etc..

Style may refer to a set of collective characteristics of language use, i.e. language habits shared by a group of people at a given time, as

…Elizabethan style?, …Yankee humor?.

Style may refer to the effectiveness of a mode o f expression. “Saying the right thing in the most effective way”.

Style may refer solely to a characteristic of …good? or …beautiful? literary writing.

Style may be seen as the various characteristic uses of language that a person or group of persons make in various social contexts.

文体又可理解为风格，既可指一个作家运用语言的特色，又可指某个时代盛行的文风；既可指某种语篇体裁的语言特征，又可指某篇作品的语言格调和表现风格。狭义的文体指文学文体；广义的文体则指包括文学文体在内的各种语言变体。

Definition of Stylistics

It is a discipline that studies the sum of stylistic features characteristic of the different varieties of language. It includes:

The situational features that influence variations in language use

The criterion for the classification of language variety

The description and interpretation of the linguistic features and functions of the main varieties of language

Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies style in a scientific and systematic way concerning the manners and linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels.

英语文体学是一门运用现代语言学的理论和方法，结合文学理论知

识，研究各种英语变体的学科。

Modern stylistics has two subdivisions: general stylistics and literary stylistics. …Stylistics? in this book, is general stylistics. (普通文体学和文学文体学)

The relationship between general stylistics and literary stylistics. (see the figure on page2)

Langue and parole(语言和言语):

Langue is the system of rules common to speakers of a particular language.

Parole is the particular uses of this system, or selections from this system, that a person or group of persons will make on this or that occasion. Style belongs to parole.It consists in choices from the total linguistic repertoire of a particular language.

语言：语言是人类重要的交际工具，也是正常人赖以思维的工具，语言是一种符号系统，它包括语音系统、词汇系统、语法系统。言语：是人们在交际和活动中应用言语的过程和产物。

语言是社会生活的客观现象，有规则性；同时，语言的语音系统、词汇系统和语法系统是从全体社会成员言语交际中抽像概括出来的，一经产生就有较大的稳定性，随社会的发展而发展。

言语是心理物理现象，具有个体性和多变性，不仅每个人都有自己的言语风格，而且同一个人在不同的场合其言语的表达方式也不同。

联系：

语言和言语又是密切联系的。言语不可能离开语言而存在。离开语言这种工具，人就无法表达自己的思想或意见，也就无法进行交际活动。语言也离不开言语，因为任何一种语言都必须通过人们的言语活动才能发挥其交际工具的作用；一旦某种语言不再被人们用来进行交际，终究要从社会上消失掉。

总之：语言是全民的、概括的、有限的、静态的系统（知识）；言语是个人的、具体的、无限的、动态的现象（话语）。

More terms defined:

Language

Speech acts(言语行为)

Actions as carried out through language.

Speech events(言语活动/言语事件):

Social activities in which language plays an important role such as conversation, discussion, lecture, etc..

Aspect of speech events: substance, form and situation

Text(文本)

Verbal communication (either spoken or written) seen as a message coded in a linear pattern of sound waves, or in a linear sequence of visible marks on paper.

Language functions:

Ideational or referential function(表达说话者经验的概念功能) Interpersonal or expressive/social function(表达说话者态度、评价以及

交际角色之间关系的人际功能) Textual function(组句成篇的语篇功能)

英语文体学教程

Chapter1 1, what is style in your opinion according to what we have studied in this chapter? Anwser1 , from the perspective of the content, the events and activities described ,style is saying different things in different ways ;from the perspective of the ways of expression used ,styled is same thing in different ways; from the perspective of the users of language ,style is different speakers using language in different ways; and from the perspective of the text ,style is the functions of texts for different purposes. Anwser2, the definition of style is the concept of style as choice .this definition can have at least too interpretations .one is that first we have a pre-existing thought ,and then we choice the appropriate type of expression to express it in language. The chosen expression is the style .another is that the choice refers to the choice of meaning. The choice of language is at the same time a choice of meaning and a choice of style . 2,what is the significance of studying the style of language in learning and teaching English? Anwser, the answer is that if we want to use language appropriately in different situations , we need to study style .as foreign language learners, if we disregard the rules of using what variety of language in what occasion , or fail to obey them through ignorance , language can become instead a barrier to successful communication . Therefore its necessary to have a clear awareness of how language should be used in different types of situations especially in unfamiliar situations. 3, what factors can result in differences in style ? Answer , 1, the different types of vocabulary create different images of the events in the rea der’s mind, so they can result in different styles.2,people living in different periods of time in history will also speak differently ,and that will result in a different style. Chapter2 1, explain the following terms 1),foregrounding: the stylistically significant features have to be prominent and motivated ,that is ,foregrounded. 2),incongruity: the linguistic features depart from the normal use of language ,breaking the rules grammar ,spelling ,pronunciation. 3)deflection : the linguistic features don’t depart from the established grammatical, lexical and logical rules and principles ,but have an unexpected high frequency of occurrence. 4),field; its concerned with what is happening ,including the subject matter,the events happenings,going-ons, the content ,etc 5)tenor: its concerned with who is taking part in the exchange of meaning ----the relationship between the speaker and the listener ,their relative status,their attitude,and their role relations . 6)mode: its concerned with how the interaction is conducted ,that is whether it is written or spoken ,or whether it is expressed by phonic substance or graphic substance. 2,question for discussion 2)in rhetorical series,the number of items can influence the stylistic effect.try to analyze the causes on the basis of social culture. Answer :different numbers of words can produce different stylistic effects in the appropriate contexts. Two items express assertion ,that is ,it is just this ,not that .In appropriate situations three items can produce ethic ,persuasive, and representative effect. Four or more items in a series

最新英语文体学知识重点

Chapter 1 Introduction ·What is the English Stylistics？ It is a science that deals with the research for a wide variety of the styles of written and oral English in English language. ·What are language functions? a) To deliver some infor to other people b) To communicate with each other in society ·How do we express ourselves in a proper way? Several factors do work. a)Phonetics b)Vocabulary c)Grammar d)Some knowledge concerning English stylistics ·The correctness in using the language can not replace the appropriateness in language communication. Why? Four examples: a) “ Hello ” and “ Hi ” b) “ Assist me! Assist me! ” and “ Aid! Aid! ” c) “That’s all right.” “That’s to say.” “It’s O.K..” d) See next page d) “ I am terribly sorry to hear that your husband has just died, but don’t let it upset you too much. You’re an attractive, young lady. I’m pretty sure it is very easy for you to find someone else soon. ” ·The effects of language expressions are sometimes related to some non-linguistic factors. a) Sex ------ “ Oh, my God! ” b) Age ------ “ Cheers! ” and “ Bye for now. ” c) Vocation ------ “ Watch the birdie. ” d) Received education ------ “ go to W.C. ” e) Social station ------ “ What prompted you to apply for this job? ” ·Why should we learn and study English stylistics? a) It will help us to express ourselves in English properly. b) It will help us to know something about language features of a variety of English written styles. c) It will help us to select a proper way for getting the best language effects and attaining our communicative purposes. d) It will help us to go at literary criticism. e) It will help us to do the translation work well. Chapter 2 Language Description & Stylistic Analysis ·There are 4 phonetic means in English: 1) stress 2) Intonation 3) pause 4) voice quality. ·Stress has several apparent stylistic and grammatical functions. (1) The first function is for emphasis. (2) The second function is to change the meaning or the part of speech of some words, or both. (3) The third function is to differ some English words (4) The fourth function is to show someone’s surprise, anger, fear, doubt, pleasure, etc..·Intonation can be employed to express people’s happiness, sadness, certainty, hesitation, depression, etc. There are 5 pitches in phonetics: (1) The falling pitch is used to show the meaning of definiteness, certainty and completeness. (2) The rising pitch is employed to show the meaning of indefiniteness, uncertainty and incompleteness. (3) The fall-rise pitch is used to give people some encouragement or give people a warning. (4) The rise-fall pitch is employed to give people a sincere praise or to show the feeling of shock. (5) The level pitch is used to give account on something happened in the past. ·Pause can be divided into two. 精品文档

英语文体学

Unit 5 Formal vs Informal Language 英教0901班董宜之程雅洁田冬雪

Contents 5.1 The interpersonal function of language 5.2 Degrees of formality 5.3 Functional tenor and degrees of formality 5.4 Martin Joo’s Classification 5.5 Speech situation and formality 5.6 Formality and linguistic features 5.7 Sets of co-occurring features 5.8 Involved vs informational texts 5.9 Tenors, field, and mode

5.1 The interpersonal function of language 1.Functions of language: ●the ideational / referential function ●the interpersonal / social / expressive function ●the textual function 2. Tenors of discourse: the relationship between participants in the situation, their roles and status. The participant relations that determine the tenor of discourse range through varying degrees of permanence.

英语语言学基础知识

英语语言学基础知识 一、绪论语言学的定义语言的定义语言学的研究范畴语言的甄别特征 几对基本概念 (2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language Language and parole 语言与言语 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要 研究的不是某一种特定的语言，Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 而是人类所有语言的特性。 Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Competence and performance 能力与运用 Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language \Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Performance: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 What is language? 什么是 语言？ Descriptive：A linguistic study describes and analyzes the

英语文体学 1

English Stylistics 英语文体学 Course Introduction Course title: English Stylistics Course hours: 2 per week, 34 in total Assessment: 1. Attendance 2. After-class preparation for related topics 3. In-class performance and involvement 4. Quiz 5. Final exam Teaching Objectives: Have a systematic knowledge of the features of different varieties of language Make appropriate use of language in our communication Familiarize ourselves with the stylistic features of the different genres of literature Deepen our understanding and appreciation of literary works Offer useful ideas on translation and language teaching Textbook: English Stylistics(英语文体学) Other reference books: Introduction to English Stylistics《英语文体学引论》（丁往道王佐良）

英语文体学讲稿

Chapter one: Introduction to Stylistics（4hrs） Definition of stylistics: Stylistics is a special kind of subject, which applies the techniques and concepts of modern linguistics to the study of literary texts. And it is based upon the idea that the examination or analysis of the language of a literary text can be a means to a fuller understanding and appreciation of the writer’s artistic achievement. So stylistics studies language as it is used in literary texts, with the aim of relating it to the artistic functions of language use. Stylistics is based upon the idea that all artistic works have content and form, usually the content can decide the form, but the other way round, the form can have counter-effect upon the content. It is also true of literary works. This definition does not mean that the learning of stylistics demands a great deal of linguistic knowledge. In stead, it requires the learner to be familiar with some basic concepts and traditional terms in grammar, phonetics, and rhetoric. And of course, the learner should also be curious and make full use of an explicit understanding of language——not just language used in the given literary context. Stylistic study/analysis Stylistics makes for a widening and deepening of the aesthetic taste. Leo Spitzer’s insistence is that the smallest detail of the used by in a particular literary text can unlock the soul of a literary work. That is, by noticing the smallest detail, the reader can understand and explain how a particular effect or meaning is achieved. Then the reader is more likely to appreciate the creation of the writer’s. Leo Spitzer: the only way to get out of the state of un-productivity is to read and reread. Summing up: Any stylistic study of a literary text starts from some curiosity or the curious noticing of some details or some special features of a particular case of language use, or such uses in a literary text. For in both linguistic and literary spheres, much rests on the intuition and personal judgment for which a system, however good, is an aid rather then a substitute. So interest and curiosity is the mother of stylistic discovery. And the method of getting some interest or insight is to read and reread the text you are going to analyze. It goes through the linguistic analysis of these details and comes to the realization of the special effects realized thereby.

837英语语言文学专业基础二

科目名称：英语语言文学专业基础二 本科目包括英语语言学基础、英美文学基础知识、英语国家概况、英汉互译四部分内容，总分150分，其中英语语言学基础50分、英美文学基础知识40分，英语国家概况30分，英汉互译30分。 英语语言学基础（50分） 一、考试要求 考生应全面掌握语言学主要分支学科的基本知识、基本理论和基本方法。 二、考试内容 考生应掌握以下方面的内容： ●导论：语言的定义、特征、功能，语言学的主要分支学科，语言学中描写与规定、共时 与历时、语言和言语、能力与表现等概念。 ●语音与音系：语音的发生与感知、发音器官、语音的描写、协同发音、音位理论、音位 变体、音系规则、区别特征、音节和重音。 ●词汇：词的概念，词的构成，词的变化。 ●句法：传统语法、结构语法、生成语法、功能语法的基本概念和基本方法。 ●语义和语用：语义和语用的基本概念和基本理论，语义关系、语义演变、言语行为理论、 合作原则。 ●语言和社会：语言与文化的关系，语言的社会变体。 ●第一及第二语言习得：基本概念、主要研究方法和领域等 三、考试题型 填空题、名词解释题、简答题、论述题。 英美文学基础知识（40分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对有关英美文学的基本概念、主要流派、基础知识的理解和掌握情况，以及运用所学的基础理论知识分析、评论简单的文学文本。 二、考试内容 1、英国文学部分 1）英国文艺复兴时期的文学：“文艺复兴”产生的历史背景、定义及其主要特征、对英国文学的影响、主要作家及其作品。 2）新古典主义时期（18世纪）英国文学：启蒙运动形成的原因、启蒙运动的定义、特征及其对英国文学的影响、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 3）浪漫主义时期（19世纪早期）英国文学：英国浪漫主义文学形成的历史背景、浪漫主义诗歌的主要作家及其作品、浪漫主义小说的主要作家及其作家品、浪漫主义散文的主要作家及其作品。 4）维多利亚时期（19世纪中后期）英国文学：英国现实主义文学形成发展的历史背景、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 5）现代时期（20世纪）英国文学：英国现代主义文学形成的历史背景、现代主义文学的主要流派、这一时期主要作家及其作品。

英语文体学知识重点[1]教案资料

英语文体学知识重点 [1]

Chapter 1 Introduction · What is the English Stylistics？ It is a science that deals with the research for a wide variety of the styles of written and oral English in English language. · What are language functions? a) To deliver some infor to other people b) To communicate with each other in society ·How do we express ourselves in a proper way? Several factors do work. a)Phonetics b)Vocabulary c)Grammar d)Some knowledge concerning English stylistics ·The correctness in using the language can not replace the appropriateness in language communication. Why? Four examples: a) “ Hello ” and “ Hi ” b) “ Assist me! Assist me! ” and “ Aid! Aid! ” c) “That’s all right.” “That’s to say.” “It’s O.K..” d) See next page d) “ I am terribly sorry to hear that your husband has just died, but don’t let it upset you too much. You’re an attractive, young lady. I’m pretty sure it is very easy for you to find someone else soon. ” ·The effects of language expressions are sometimes related to some non-linguistic factors. a) Sex ------ “ Oh, my God! ” b) Age ------ “ Cheers! ” and “ Bye for now. ” c) Vocation ------ “ Watch the birdie. ” d) Received education ------ “ go to W.C. ” e) Social station ------ “ What prompted you to apply for this job? ” ·Why should we learn and study English stylistics? a) It will help us to express ourselves in English properly. b) It will help us to know something about language features of a variety of English written styles. c) It will help us to select a proper way for getting the best language effects and attaining our communicative purposes. d) It will help us to go at literary criticism. e) It will help us to do the translation work well. Chapter 2 Language Description & Stylistic Analysis ·There are 4 phonetic means in English: 1) stress 2) Intonation 3) pause 4) voice quality. ·Stress has several apparent stylistic and grammatical functions. (1) The first function is for emphasis. (2) The second function is to change the meaning or the part of speech of some words, or both. (3) The third function is to differ some English words (4) The fourth function is to show someone’s surprise, anger, fear, doubt, pleasure, etc.. ·Intonation can be employed to express people’s happiness, sadness, certainty, hesitation, depression, etc. There are 5 pitches in phonetics: 收集于网络，如有侵权请联系管理员删除

《英语文体学》1-7总结

第一章文体学相关研究内容 文体学分为普通文体学和文学文体学，二者有重叠部分，但在此我们所研究的是普通文体学，文体学研究的是语言风格，对语言，人们的理解有很多种，但不管哪种说法，无可否认，语言都是人类表达思想、互相交流的手段，并且有很多具不同意旨的言语事件；风格是与说话人的语言习惯、时代背景相关的，是人门特有的表达方式，因人而异，对语言起到一定修饰作用并且关系到语言表达的有效性。因此，文体学研究会涉及各种语言变体及相关特征、功用。文体学对提高理解力和鉴赏水平有很大帮助。此外，文体学还与语言学、修辞学及文学评论等相关联。接下来的章节中将具体阐述相关内容。 第二章文体学研究的必要性 学习文体学可以提高我们语言使用的精确性，犹如不能在婚礼上穿牛仔装一样，语言使用要合乎当时、当地的具体环境，这就涉及文体学中的言语事件；学习文体学有利于提高我们对文学作品的理解与鉴赏水平，因为文学创作中，作者不可避免会对作品的语言、风格做选择，在文学评论三部曲（描述、解读、评估）中会涉及相关内容；文体学对满足翻译适应性有很大帮助，翻译很难做到完全对应，但基本原则一致是必须的，如作品基调、作品体裁等一致。以上文体学内容中都有涉及。 第三章语言变体 在不同的社交场合，有不同的约定俗成的语体。根据特定场合的语言习惯及其中特定说话人的语言使用，语言变体可以分为两种：方言变体和语域变体。方言变体与不同的语言使用者相关，分为个人方言、时间方言、地域方言、社会方言和标准方言；语域变体与不同社交场合相关，其构成要素是语场、语式和语旨。两种变体并非独立存在而是有一定的相关性，比如，在同一种族、同一领域或同一社会地位，为了增进了解，说话人可能会选择这一具某种共同特征人群的行内语言。此外，从语言变体中，我们还可以获知说话人的某些相关信息，如职业、国家和说话意旨等。 第四章语言描述 了解了语言变体，本章节探讨各种语言变体的具体表述问题，即具体语言表述。在这个层面上，文体学提供了一种系统的分析方法，使我们对付各种文章轻而易举。文体学上对语言描述的研究分别从语言层次上着手，即从音系、语相上，词汇语法上和语义上着手。各个层次上的具体特征表现共同或分别作用于文章整体，以达到某种表达效果。因此，在对语言描述进行具体分析时，就要着眼于这几个层次上的文体特征，具体步骤：系统浏览文章并记录具有已述特征的语言点；量化语言特征的使用频率；评估文体特征在文中的重要意义；对文章总体进行综合评述，尤其是对逻辑关系和整体思路。另外，我们可以将这种方法应用到对变体种类和语场的分析中。 第五章正式语和非正式语 语言所承载的基本功能是人际交流功能，根据参与者和具体语言环境，语言有正式和非正式的差别。说话人社会地位愈高、具体场合愈正式，语言使用就越严谨、越正式；在日常对话或与关系愈亲密的人对话时，语言使用就越生活化、越轻松。语言使用的正式程度与话语意旨密切相关，由此产生日常习语、法律术语、政治术语等等专门语言，Martin Joos将正式程度变化划分五级：僵化、正式、咨询、随便、亲密。不同语言环境下，语言正式度会不同，说话人会随外部语言环境自行调节。正式用语与非正式用语在词汇、音调、语义上都有所不同，前者用词多是正式书面化，吐词清晰、完整，逻辑性强；后者则相反。根据同现限制原则，我们可以分辨语言使用的正式程度高低。 第六章口语和书面语 根据语言传播媒介，语言分为口语和书面语，二者在很多方面均有不同。与书面语相比，口语一般是说话人与听话人面对面交流，说话人需要听话人关注，并及时得到反馈，所以多

英语文体学知识重点[1]

v1.0 可编辑可修改 1 Chapter 1 Introduction · What is the English Stylistics It is a science that deals with the research for a wide variety of the styles of written and oral English in English language. · What are language functions a) To deliver some infor to other people b) To communicate with each other in society ·How do we express ourselves in a proper way Several factors do work. a) Phonetics b) Vocabulary c) Grammar d) Some knowledge concerning English stylistics ·The correctness in using the language can not replace the appropriateness in language communication. Why Four examples: a) “ Hello ” and “ Hi ” b) “ Assist me! Assist me! ” and “ Aid! Aid! ” c) “That’s all right.” “That’s to say.” “It’s ..” d) See next page d) “ I am terribly sorry to hear that your husband has just died, but don’t let it upset you too much. You’re an attractive, young lady. I’m pretty sure it is very easy for you to find someone else soon. ” ·The effects of language expressions are sometimes related to some non-linguistic factors. a) Sex ------ “ Oh, my God! ” b) Age ------ “ Cheers! ” and “ Bye for now. ” c) Vocation ------ “ Watch the birdie. ” d) Received education ------ “ go to . ” e) Social station ------ “ What prompted you to apply for this job ” ·Why should we learn and study English stylistics a) It will help us to express ourselves in English properly. b) It will help us to know something about language features of a variety of English written styles. c) It will help us to select a proper way for getting the best language effects and attaining our communicative purposes.

英语文体学1答案

英语文体学1答案 一、单项选择题（本大题共5小题，每小题4分，共20分）1、C 2、C 3、D 4、D 5、D 二、填空题（本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分） 1、knowl edge 2、bilabial 3、morphol ogy 4、sentence 5、compl ete 三、判断改错题（本大题共5小题，每小题4分，共20分） 1、F Actually mod ern linguistics lays more emphasis on the spoken form of language than the written form for a number of reasons. 2、F Voicing distinguishes meaning in English but not in Chinese. 3、F The meaning of some compound words has nothing to d o with the sum total of the meanings of their components, such as the compound "red coat". 4、F Apart from S and C, they also refer to a word, or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function. 5、F Dialectal synonyms can often be found not only in different regional dial ects such as British English and American English but also within the variety itself. For exampl e, within British English, "girl" is call ed "lassie" in Scottish dial ect, and "liquor" is call ed "whishey" in Irish dial ect .四、名词解释题（本大题共5小题，每小题6分，共30分） 1、One of the major d efining features of human language. Human language consists of two l evels. At the l ower l evel, there are a limited number of sounds which are meaningl ess whil e at the higher l evel there are an unlimited number of combinations of these sounds. It is also known as d oubl e articulation. 2、Linguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics, e.g.the study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present. 3、A way to transcribe speech sounds. The basic principl e is to use one l etter to indicate one sound. It is generally used in dictionaries and language teaching textbooks. 4、The rul es that govern which affix can be add ed to what type of stem to form a new word, e.g.-ly can be ad d ed to a noun to form an adjective. 5、a rewrite rul e that allows for the possibl e combinations of words to form phrases and sentences 五、论述题（共20分） 1、The inventory of sounds can change, and sound changes includ e changes in vowel sounds, sound l oss, sound ad dition, and sound movement. 1) Vowel sound change: English has und ergone the systematic and regular change in the vowel sounds, known as the Great Vowel shift which occurred at the end of the Mid dl e English period and which involved seven l ong, or tense vowels. These changes l ed to one of the major discrepancies between the phonemic representations of words and morphemes, i.e. between pronunciation and the spelling system of Modern English, e.g.five→/fi:v/(Middl e English)→/faiv/(Mod ern English) 2) Sound l oss: Sounds can change by the l oss of phonemes. In the history of English the velar fricative /x/ was l ost. This sound existed in Ol d English, so "night" was pronounced as /nixt/, but in Mod ern English, its pronunciation is /nait/. 3) Sound addition: Sound addition includ es the gain or insertion of a sound. For exampl e, the word l eisure was borrowed from French, so the phoneme /3/ was add ed to the inventory of English sounds. A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the mid dl e of a word is known as epenthesis, e.g.spinl e--spindl e. 4) Sound movement: Sound change as a result of sound movement known as metathesis involves a reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments. Metathesis is l ess common, but it d oes exist. In some dial ects of English, for example, the word ask is pronounced /? ks/. Also, brid d ("bird") is an Ol d English word. When metathesis occurred to this word, the movement of /r/ sound to the right of the vowel sound resulted in its Mod ern English counterpart "bird".