劳动经济学课后习题答案

Answers to Even-Numbered Review Questions

2. Are the following statements "positive" or "normative"? Why?

a. Employers should not be required to offer pensions to their employees.

b. Employers offering pension benefits will pay lower wages than they would if they did

not offer a pension program.

c. If further immigration of unskilled foreigners is prevented, the wages of unskilled

immigrants already here will rise.

d. The military draft compels people to engage in a transaction they would not

voluntarily enter into; it should therefore be avoided as a way of recruiting military personnel.

e. If the military draft were reinstituted, military salaries would probably fall.

Answer: (a) normative (b) positive (c) positive (d) normative (e) positive

4. What are the functions and limitations of an economic model?

Answer: The major function of an economic model is to strip away real world complexities and focus on a particular cause/effect relationship. In this sense an economic model is analogous to an architect's model of a building. An architect may be interested in designing a building that fits in harmoniously with its surroundings, and in designing such a building the architect may employ a model that captures the essentials of his or her concerns (namely, appearance) without getting into the complexities of plumbing, electrical circuits, and the design of interior office space. Similarly, an economic model will often focus on a particular kind of behavior and ignore complexities that are either not germane to that behavior or only of indirect importance.

Models used to generate insights about responses to a given economic stimulus are often not intended to forecast actual outcomes. For example, if we are interested in bow behavior is affected by stimulus B, with factors C, D, and E held constant, our model may not correctly forecast the observed behavior if stimuli C through E also change.

6. A few years ago it was common for state laws to prohibit women from working more

than 40 hours a week. Using the principles underlying normative economics, evaluate these laws.

Answer: Laws preventing women from working more than 40 hours per week essentially blocked mutually beneficial transactions. There were women who wanted to work more than 40 hours a week, and there were employers who wanted to employ them for more than 40 hours a week. The restrictions upon their employment prevented these transactions from occurring and therefore made both the women and their potential employers worse off.

8. “Government policies as frequently prevent Pareto efficiency as they enhance it.”

Comment.

Answer. Achieving Pareto efficiency requires the completion of all mutually beneficial transactions. Ideally, government would step in to provide information is that is blocking mutually beneficial transactions or to establish markets (or market substitutes) when markets do not exist. However, governments also have power to prevent transactions or distort prices, both of which can prevent the completion of mutually beneficial transactions. Government regulations can outlaw certain transactions that the parties to them would consider mutually beneficial (the text mentions laws that historically prevented women from working more than 40 hours per week). Government also has the

power to distort prices by setting minimum wages, mandating premiums for overtime work, and so forth.

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

2. (Appendix) Suppose that a least squares regression yields the following estimate:

Wi = -1 + .3Ai, where W is the hourly wage rate (in dollars) and A is the age in years.

A second regression from another group of workers yields this estimate:

Wi = 3 + .3Ai - .01(Ai)2.

a. How much is a 20-year-old predicted to earn based on the first estimate?

b. How much is a 20-year-old predicted to earn based on the second estimate? Answer: a. W = -1 + .3x20 = 5 dollars per hour.

b. W = 3 + .3x20 - .01x20x20 = 3 + 6 - 4 = 5 dollars per hour.

Suggested Essay Questions

1. Child labor is an issue that has been discussed a lot recently. From the perspective of

normative economics, explain the problem with child labor.

Answer: Pareto efficiency requires that transactions have mutual benefits, and this can be assured only if the transactions are voluntary and take place with complete information. Children may be compelled by their parents to work, and they have limited capacities to make informed decisions even in the absence of compulsion.

2. A law in one town of a Canadian province limits large supermarkets to just four

employees on Sundays. Analyze this law using the concepts of normative economics. Answer. There are no doubt large supermarkets that want to hire workers on Sundays (because there are consumers who want to shop on Sundays), and there are no doubt employees who could be induced – perhaps by higher wages – to work on Sundays. A law preventing such work prevents a mutually beneficial transaction.

CHAPTER 2 - OVERVIEW OF THE LABOR MARKET Answers to Even-Numbered Review Questions

2. Analyze the impact of the following changes on wages and employment in a

given occupation:

a.)A fall in the danger of the occupation.

b.)An increase in product demand.

c.)Increased wages in alternative occupations.

Answer: (a) A fall in the danger of the occupation, other things being equal, should increase the attractiveness of that occupation, shifting the supply curve to the right and causing employment to rise and wages to fall.

(b) An increase in product demand will shift the demand for labor curve to the right causing both wages and employment to increase.

(c) Increased wages in other occupations will render them relatively more attractive than they were before and cause the supply curve to the occupation in question to shift to the left. This will cause employment in this market to fall and wages to rise.

4. Suppose a particular labor market were in market-clearing equilibrium. What could

happen to cause the equilibrium wage to fall? If all money wages rose each year, how would this market adjust?

Answer: Starting from the position of equilibrium, a labor market could experience a fall in the equilibrium wage if either the demand curve shifts to the left or the supply curve shifts to the right. While market wages are usually stated in nominal terms, their

relationship to the prices of both consumer and producer products is of ultimate importance. Therefore, both parties to the employment relationship are, in the last analysis, concerned with the real wage rate. The real wage rate can fall when the nominal wage rate is rising if prices of consumer and producer products rise even more quickly. 6. How will a fall in the civilian unemployment rate affect the supply of recruits for the

volunteer army? What will be the effect on military wages?

Answer: Supply curves to a given occupation are drawn holding alternative opportunities constant. If those opportunities become more attractive, the supply curve to the given occupation will shift left and tend to drive up wages. Thus, a fall in the unemployment rate will shift the army's supply curve to the left (there will be fewer recruits at each army wage rate), and the army's wages will be driven up.

8. Suppose that the Consumer Product Safety Commission issues a regulation requiring

an expensive safety device to be attached to all power lawnmowers. This device does not increase the efficiency with which the lawnmower operates. What, if anything, does this regulation do to the demand for labor of firms manufacturing power

lawnmowers? Explain.

Answer: This regulation would cause the demand for labor curve of the firms that manufacture power mowers to shift to the left. The demand for labor is in part derived from product demand. Because it is more costly now to manufacture lawnmowers, the prices that will be charged to consumers will rise. This price increase will move the firm upward and to the left along its product demand curve. With less product demanded for any given wage rate paid to workers, the end result is a leftward shift of the labor demand curve. (If, however, consumer preferences for greater safety were to shift the product demand curve to the right, employment losses would be mitigated.)

10. Suppose we observe that employment levels in a certain region suddenly decline as a

result of (i) a fall in the region's demand for labor, and (ii) wages that are fixed in the short run. If the new demand for labor curve remains unchanged for a long period and the region's labor supply curve does not shift, is it likely that employment in the

region will recover? Explain.

Answer: The initial response to a leftward shift in the labor demand curve in the context of fixed wages is for there to be a relatively large decline in employment. This decline in employment is larger than the ultimate decline in employment. The initial disequilibrium between demand and supply in the labor market should force wages down in the long run, and as wages decline firms will move downward along their labor demand curves and

will begin to employ more labor. However, employment in the region would recover to

its prior level (assuming no subsequent shifts in demand or supply curves) only if the supply curve was vertical; if supply curves are upward-sloping, the declining wage will cause some withdrawal of labor from the market and employment will not recover to its prior level.

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

2.Suppose that the supply curve for school teachers is Ls = 20,000 + 350W and the

demand curve for school teachers is Ld = 100,000 – 150W, where L = the number of teachers and W = the daily wage.

a. Plot the demand and supply curves.

b. What are the equilibrium wage and employment level in this market?

c. Now suppose that at any given wage 20,000 more workers are willing to work as

school teachers. Plot the new supply curve and find the new wage and employment level. Why doesn't employment grow by 20,000?

Answer: a. See the figure. Plot the Ld and Ls curves by solving for desired employment at given wage rates. If W = 500, for example, employers desire 25,000 workers (Ld = 100,000 – 150x500); if W = 400, they would desire 40,000. Since the equation above is for a straight line, drawing a line using these two points gives us the demand curve. Use the same procedure for the labor supply curve.

b. To find the equilibrium, solve for the wage at which the quantity of labor supplied equals the quantity of labor demanded: Ls = 20,000 + 350W = 100,000 – 150W = Ld. Solve for W by adding 150W to both sides and subtracting 20,000 from both sides to yield 500W = 80,000. Dividing both sides by 500 reveals that W = $160 per day. Plugging W = $160 into both the labor demand and supply equations shows that L = 76,000 schoolteachers.

c. The new labor supply curve is Ls' = 40,000 + 350W. Setting this equal to Ld and solving shows that W = $120 per day; L = 82,000 school teachers. Employment doesn't grow by 20,000 because the shift in the supply curve causes the wage to fall, which induces some teachers to drop out of the market.

Suggested Essay Questions

1. American students have organized opposition to the sale by their campus stores of

university apparel made for American retailers by workers in foreign countries who work in “sweatshop” conditions (long hours at low pay in bad working conditions).

Assume this movement takes the form of boycotting items made under sweatshop conditions.

(a)Analyze the immediate labor market outcomes for sweatshop workers in these

countries, using demand and supply curves to illustrate the mechanisms

driving this outcome.

(b)Assuming that actions by American students are the only force driving the

improvement of wages and working conditions in foreign countries, what

must these actions include to ensure that the workers they are unambiguously

better off?

Answer. (a) The demand curve for low-wage workers in foreign countries shifts to the left when the product demand for the apparel they made falls. This drives down wages and employment (assuming a fixed supply curve). (b) To avoid the effects in (a), students in the U.S. must be willing to buy the same quantity and quality of apparel at higher prices – that is, they must be willing to pay a premium for apparel made by better-paid workers.

2. Ecuador is the world’s leading exporter of bananas, which are grown and harvested

by a large labor force that includes many children. Assume Ecuador now outlaws the use of child labor on ban ana plantations. Using economic theory in its “positive”

mode, analyze what would happen to employment and wages in the banana farming industry in Ecuador. Use demand and supply curves in your analysis.

Answer. Outlawing child labor on banana plantations reduces the supply of labor to these plantations, shifting the supply curve to the left. With a fixed demand curve, this shift in the supply curve drives up wages and drives down employment.

CHAPTER 3 - THE DEMAND FOR LABOR

Answers to Even-Numbered Review Questions

2. Suppose that the U.S. military is having difficulty recruiting volunteers and is

considering one of two options: raising pay or reinstating the draft system. Analyze the opportunity costs of lost civilian production when volunteers are used as

compared to those associated with drafting civilians using some random method of choice.

Answer. In choosing employers, pay is an important consideration. Thus, many of those who choose a military job are those whose civilian job opportunities pay less than the military. Conversely, many of those who choose to remain civilians are

workers whose civilian pay is higher than their military pay offer. Because profits are maximized when workers’ marginal revenue productivities (MRP L) are equal to the wage (W), we can assume that those with higher pay also have higher civilian MRP L.

Thus, when society relies on military volunteers, it will lose less civilian output than it would by drafting an equal number of civilian workers randomly. (It should be noted that pay is not the only consideration in choosing a job, and that workers are really trying to maximize utility. Those who choose civilian life over the military will be those who would get the least utility from performing military duties. If some of the latter are forced into the military, there is also an opportunity cost to society of lost worker utility!)

4. Suppose that prisons historically have required inmates to perform, without pay,

various cleaning and food preparation jobs within the prison. Now suppose that

prisoners are offered paid work in factory jobs within the prison walls, and that the cleaning and food preparation tasks are now performed by non-prisoners hired to do

them. Would you expect to see any differences in the technologies used to perform these tasks? Explain.

Answer. When inmates were required to work without pay, their wage was

essentially zero – and we would expect that prisons to have adopted labor-intensive technologies (using the argument inherent in equation 3.8c). When wages rise, the cost of expanding output using labor becomes greater, and we expect prisons to adopt the use of more capital in the production process.

6. Suppose the government were to subsidize the wages of all women in the population

by paying their employers 50 cents for every hour they worked. What would be the effect on the wage rate women received? What would be the effect on the net wage employers paid? (The net wage would be the wage women received less 50 cents.) Answer: Consider a simple competitive labor market in which the demand and supply of women are both expressed in terms of the wage received by women (which, in the absence of any subsidy, is assumed to be equal to the wage paid by employers). Given the demand curve, D0, and the supply curve, S0, market clearing wage and employment levels will be W0 and E0,respectively.

Suppose the government now subsidizes employers by paying them 50 cents for every hour women work. Viewed in terms of the wage received by women, the employers' demand curve will shift up by exactly 50 cents (reflecting the fact that this amount will be paid by the government). At the old market clearing wage received by women, W0, the number of women employers want to hire, E2, exceeds the number who are willing to work, E0. This puts upward pressure on the wage received by women, and this wage rises until the excess demand for labor is eliminated. This equilibrium occurs at the wage rate W1, and the employment level E1.

It is clear from the figure that the wage received by women increases by less than 50 cents as long as the supply of labor curve is not vertical (i.e., as long as labor supply is responsive to wages). Indeed, the more responsive labor supply is to the wage rate, the less the women's wage will rise. Since the wage paid by employers now equals the wage women receive less the 50-cent subsidy, it is also clear that the wage paid by employers declines (by 50 cents minus the increase in the wage women receive).

It is important to stress to students that one would reach identical conclusions if one analyzed the subsidy in terms of the wage employers pay. If supply and demand curves are drawn in terms of this variable, a 50-cent-an-hour subsidy for women would shift the female labor supply curve down by 50 cents. At the old wage paid by employers, the supply of female labor would now exceed the demand. Downward pressure would be

placed on the wage paid by employers and it would fall by less than 50 cents (as long as labor supply was responsive to the wage). As a result, the wage received by women would rise by 50 cents less the fall in the wage paid by employers.

8.In 1999, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that hourly compensation costs

per U.S. manufacturing worker were $19.20, while those in Mexico were $2.12.

Recognizing that the analysis leading up to equation 3.8c can be used to understand the choices firms make between any two factors of production, explain why a

growing firm with facilities in both Mexico and the U.S. might still expand its outp ut using U.S. workers. (Hint: consider U.S. and Mexican workers to be substitute

factors of production.)

Answer. The profit-maximizing firm will choose to expand production in the least costly way. To do so, it will continue to substitute one factor of production for another until the costs of expanding production using the two factors are equal (see equation 3.8c). In choosing between U.S. and Mexican workers, profit maximization means that firms will substitute one for another until the ratio of their wages to their marginal productivities are equal. Mexican wages may be much lower than in the U.S., but if the relative marginal productivity of Mexican workers is even lower, firms would decide to expand output using U.S. workers. Put differently, even though wages are lower in Mexico, the ratio of wages to marginal productivity – which is the critical datum – could be higher there than in the U.S.

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

2.The marginal revenue product of labor in the local saw mill is MRP L = 20 - .5L,

where L = the number of workers. If the wage of saw mill workers is $10 per hour, then how many workers will the mill hire?

Answer: The mill will hire workers until MRP L = W. 20 - .5L = 10 when L = 20 workers.

4.The output of workers at a factory depends on the number of supervisors hired (see

below). The factory sells its output for $.50 each, it hires 50 production workers at a wage of $100 per day, and needs to decide how many supervisors to hire. The daily wage of supervisors is $500 but output rises as more supervisors are hired, as shown below. How many supervisors should it hire?

Supervisors Output (units per day)

0 11,000

1 14,800

2 18,000

3 19,500

4 20,200

520,600

Answer. The firm needs to compare the marginal cost to the marginal revenue of hiring an additional supervisor. The marginal cost is always $500 for each extra supervisor. The marginal revenue is the number of additional units produced times the price of output. Number of Supervisors MC MR

1 $500 $.50x3800 = $1900

2 $500 $.50x3200 = $1600

3 $500 $.50x1500 = $750

4 $500 $.50x700 = $350

5 $500 $.50x400 = $200

The firm will hire three supervisors since the marginal revenue generated from hiring the third supervisor exceeds $500 but the marginal revenue generated from hiring the fourth supervisor is less than $500.

Suggested Essay Questions

1. Assume that wages for keyboarders (data entry clerks) are lower in India than in the

United States. Does this mean that keyboarding jobs in the United States will be lost to India? Explain.

Answer. Indian data entry clerks will be substituted for American ones only if the ratio of their wage to their marginal productivity is lower. Thus, it is not wage alone that affects the incentives to substitute; marginal productivity is also critical.

2. American students have organized opposition to the sale by their campus stores of

university apparel made for American retailers by workers in foreign countries who work in “sweatshop” condi tions (long hours at low pay in bad working conditions).

If this movement is successful in raising pay and improving working conditions for apparel workers in foreign countries, how will these changes abroad affect labor

market outcomes for workers in the apparel and retailing industries in the United

States? Explain.

Answer. If increased labor costs abroad are not accompanied by increases in marginal productivity, then there will be incentives to substitute for these foreign workers (with capital or workers elsewhere, including the United States). However, increased costs of manufacturing university apparel also would be expected to reduce sales and the scale of output, which will put downward pressure on employment in the American apparel and retailing industries. The presence of both substitution and scale effects – working in opposite directions – implies that the ultimate effect on American workers in these industries cannot be predicted by theory alone.

3. “Despite free trade and the need to comp ete with American and Canadian manufacturers, most Mexican factories continue to use outdated equipment and inefficient (labor-using) work systems.” If true, does this indicate that, in the face of very low wages in Mexico, plant owners there are making mistakes?

Answer. The choice of technology is affected by the marginal costs of producing using labor (W/MP L) compared to the marginal costs of producing using capital (C/MP K). When wages are low and capital is costly, other things equal, economic theory leads us to expect that firms would use labor-intensive methods to produce.

CHAPTER 4 - LABOR DEMAND ELASTICITIES

Answers to Even-Numbered Review Questions

2. Union A faces a demand curve in which a wage of $4 per hour leads to demand for

20,000 person hours and a wage of $5 per hour leads to demand for 10,000 person hours. Union B faces a demand curve in which a wage of $6 per hour leads to demand for 30,000 person hours, while a wage of $5 per hour leads to demand for 33,000 person hours.

a. Which union faces the more elastic demand curve?

b. Which union will be more successful in increasing the total income (wages times

person hours) of its membership?

Answer: (a) As noted in the text, the elasticity of demand for labor is not necessarily a constant along a given demand curve. Indeed, when we speak of changes in wage rates that are not infinitesimal, the actual value of the elasticity depends on the wage rate from which one is starting. Given the data on union A and the formula for the elasticity of demand, %?E/%?W, union A's elasticity when one increases its wage rate from $4.00 to $5.00 is given by (20,000-10,000)/20,000 divided by ($4.00-5.00)/4.00, or (1/2)/(-1/4), which equals -2. In contrast, when one decreases union A's wage from $5.00 to $4.00, its elasticity is given by (10,000-20,000)/10,000 divided by (5.00-4.00)/5.00 or (-1)/(1/5) or -5. Its elasticity over the interval $4.00 to $5.00 depends on which wage we use as a base. To prevent this type of result, economists often define the average elasticity over the wage interval W1, to W2 as

[(E2-E1,)/.5(E1,+E2)]/[(W2-W1,)/.5(W1,+W2)].

Note that this elasticity estimate does not vary with the end of the wage interval (high or low) at which one starts. In the present question the average elasticities for union A and union B are given by

Elas. (A): [(20,000-10,000)/15,000]/[(4.00-5.00)/4.50] = (2/3)/(-2/9) = -3

Elas. (B): [(33,000-30,000)/31,500]/[(5.00-6.00)/5.50] = -.524

Given the above data, union A faces the more elastic demand curve.

(b) One cannot say which union will be more successful in increasing its members' total earnings. This depends upon a number of factors, including the bargaining power of the two unions and the firms with which they deal. It is true, however, that the union with the more elastic demand curve will suffer a larger percentage employment loss for any given percentage increase in wages, and this is likely to reduce its incentive to push for large wage gains. Thus, one's inclination is to say that the union facing the less elastic demand curve is likely to be more successful in raising its members' wages.

(This answer assumes that wage/employment contracts under collective bargaining lie on the demand-for-labor curve. As shown in the appendix to Chapter 12, this need not always be the case.)

4. Clerical workers represent a substantial share of the U.S. work force -- over 15

percent in recent years. Concern has been expressed that computerization and office automation will lead to a substantial decline in white-collar employment and

increased unemployment of clerical workers. Is this concern well founded? Answer: Offices have become more computerized in recent years because the cost of using computers has fallen relative to labor's price (the wage rate). This causes a substitution effect, tending to shift the labor demand curve to the left for categories of labor that are substitutes in production with capital. However, there is also a scale effect tending to increase employment for the above categories, so we cannot tell in advance which effect will dominate. (For labor categories that are complementary with capital in the production process, the labor demand curve clearly shifts to the right.) Therefore, it is not necessarily true that white-collar employment will fall; the scale effect may prevail for many of these jobs (a dominant scale effect is more likely if product demand is elastic, if it is difficult to substitute capital for labor, and if the share of capital in total cost is large).

Even if labor demand shifts left for a particular occupational category, unemployment

will not be the long-term result unless wages are rigid. Adversely affected workers would have to shift to other occupations and may experience some transitional joblessness, but

only if wages are rigid and employees refuse to shift to lower paying jobs will their unemployment be permanent.

6. In 1942 the government promulgated regulations that prohibited the manufacture of

many types of garments by workers who did the sewing, stitching, and knitting in their homes. If these prohibitions are repealed, so that clothing items may now be made either by workers in factories or by independent contractors doing work in their homes, what effect will repealing the prohibitions have on the labor demand curve for factory workers in the garment industry?

Answer : Repealing the prohibitions enables garment manufacturers to substitute home workers for factory workers. Assuming that the 1942 regulations were constraining, one can presume that there will be at least some substitution of home workers for factory workers; this substitution will tend to shift the labor demand curve for factory workers to the left. However, there may be a favorable scale effect for certain factory workers performing tasks (such as packaging and shipping) complementary with home production. Besides the shift to the left of the labor demand curve, the new substitution possibilities opened up by repealing the 1942 regulations should serve to make the labor demand curve for factory workers more elastic. Just as the greater ability to substitute capital for labor will tend to make the labor demand curve more elastic, so too will the ability to substitute home labor for factory workers.

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

Ed: the answer to problem 2 is to be changed:

2.Professor Pessimist argues before Congress that reducing the size of the military will

have grave consequences for the typical American worker. He argues that if one million individuals were released from the military and were instead employed in the civilian labor market, average wages in the civilian labor market would fall dramatically.

Assume that the demand curve for civilian labor does not shift when workers are

released from the military. First, draw a simple diagram depicting the effect of this

influx of workers from the military. Next, using your knowledge of a) the definition of the own-wage elasticity of labor demand, b) the magnitude of this elasticity for the

economy as a whole, and c) the size of civilian employment in comparison to this flood from the military, graph these events and estimate the magnitude of the reduction in wages for civilian workers as a whole. Do you concur with Professor Pessimist? Answer. Because you were asked about the effects on civilian wages as a whole, you will probably not concur with Professor Pessimist. Own-wage elasticity of demand for labor

= %?(quantity demanded)/%?(wage) = (?Ld/Ld)/(?W/W). In this case ?Ld = 1 million, Ld = about 135 million employed workers, and the own-wage elasticity of demand for labor is approximately -1. Thus, -1 = (1 million/135 million)/(?W/W), so ?W/W will be very small -- about -1/135 (or -0.0074). This implies that wages will fall by 0.74 percent.

However, the military recruits in a very narrow segment of the labor market--mostly high school grads who do not attend college, and who are between ages 17-21. Thus, downsizing would have the greatest effect on this segment of the market. If there were only 13.5 million, say, in this age group, a labor demand elasticity of –1 would yield a wage effect of the military downsizing of closer to –7.4% on this group of the population.

4. (Appendix) The production possibilities curve for the United States is linear and

allows it to produce a maximum of 500 million units of clothing or 300 million units of food. The production possibilities curve for France is also linear and allows it to produce a maximum of 250 million units of clothing or 150 million units of food.

Which good will the United States export to France?

Answer: Neither. The two countries have the same opportunity cost, so neither has a comparative advantage in either good.

Suggested Essay Questions

1. The public utilities commission in a state lifts price controls on the sale of natural gas

to manufacturing plants and allows utilities to charge market prices (which are 30% higher). What conditions would minimize the extent of manufacturing job loss

associated with this price increase?

Answer. This question involves the cross-elasticity of demand. A higher price of natural gas will have a substitution effect that could favor increased employment, and a scale effect that tends to reduce employment. Factors that minimize the extent of job loss are those that make for a robust substitution effect and a small scale effect. A large substitution effect will tend to occur if labor is easily substituted for natural gas in the production process, and if the supply of labor is relatively elastic. A small scale effect would be created if natural gas is a small part of the overall cost of production, and if the demand for the products made using natural gas is relatively inelastic.

2. One anti-terrorism expert proposes the development of two capabilities that would

protect shipments of hazardous materials by truck. O ne is to maintain continuous satellite monitoring of all such shipments, and the other is to install devices that

automatically shut down any truck that has been hijacked or deviates from its

approved route. Discuss how implementing this proposal is likely to affect the

demand for truck drivers, noting especially the conditions under which this effect is likely to be largest.

Answer. This proposal is an attempt to monitor truck drivers, and it really raises the cost of labor (trucks now require both a driver and monitoring equipment). Thus, the four factors underlying the elasticity of labor demand are relevant. Where it is easier to substitute capital for labor, then trucks will tend to get bigger and the number of drivers needed will go down more. The substitution effect will also be larger if the supply of capital (in the form of larger trucks) is elastic. If product demand is more elastic, the scale effect will be larger and product demand will go down more. Finally, where the monitoring equipment represents a larger share of overall cost, the scale effect will be larger.

3. (Appendix). One observer of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

claims that, contrary to expectations, jobs in Mexican agriculture have been destroyed while jobs in the industrialized cities of northern Mexico have expanded. Assuming the facts on job loss and employment gains are accurate, are they consistent with

economic theory?

Answer. Free trade allows countries to specialize in producing goods and services that have the lowest internal opportunity cost (that is, to specialize in goods for which they have a comparative advantage). If we think of two generalized goods (agricultural goods and manufactured goods), a country becomes more efficient in the production of manufactured goods will, by the definition of opportunity cost, become less efficient in

the production of agricultural goods. If Mexico has a comparative advantage in the production of manufactured goods, it must have a comparative disadvantage in the production of agricultural goods. Thus, the assumed facts in the question are quite consistent with economic theory.

CHAPTER 5 - QUASI-FIXED LABOR COSTS AND THEIR

EFFECTS ON DEMAND

Answers to Even-Numbered Review Questions

2.When plants close, firms usually must incur various costs associated with laying off

its workers, including processing necessary forms, helping them find other jobs, and paying them severance allowances. Suppose that industry X finds itself in a much more competitive product market than it used to face, and that firms in the industry now have a greater probability of closing than they used to have. How might this change affect (a) the number of employees hired in the industry, and (b) their average hours of work?

Answer. Firing costs are quasi-fixed, because they are associated with workers, not hours of work. When they are increased, as they are in industry X, this will induce firms to (a) hire fewer workers, and (b) work those they hire for more hours.

4. Workers in a certain job are trained by the company, and the company calculates that

to recoup its investment costs the workers’ wages must be $5 per hour below their marginal productivity. Suppose that after training, wages are set at $5 below

marginal productivity, but that developments in the product market quickly (and

permanently) reduce marginal productivity by $2 per hour. If the company does not feel it can lower wages or employee benefits, how will its employment level be

affected in the short-run? How will its employment level be affected in the long run?

Explain, being sure to define what you mean by short-run and long-run!

Answer. In the short run (that is, when training investments have already been concluded, so all that is variable is the employment levels of trained workers), marginal revenue product still exceeds wages by $3 per hour, so it is advantageous for the company to continue employing workers it has already trained. The company is not making back enough to make the training be a good investment, but making back $3 per hour is better than laying off the workers and making back nothing! Thus, workers will not be laid off.

In the long run (that is, when the company is deciding about investing in new workers), the $3 payback per hour is not sufficient to justify the training investment if wages remain as they are. Thus, the firm will not hire and train new workers under the current circumstances. Employment will fall as the firm fails to replace those who leave, and the decline in employment will eventually serve to raise the marginal productivity of labor. The decline in employment will stop when the marginal revenue product of labor is once again $5 greater than the wage rate.

6. Suppose that the United States adopts a policy requiring employers to offer 600 hours

of paid leave for mothers of newly born babies. Assuming wages remain the same, analyze the labor demand effects of mandated paid child-care leave on women of childbearing age and on women past childbearing age.

Answer: This policy clearly increases the expected cost of employing women of childbearing age by imposing on employers a quasi-fixed cost (equal to 600 hours of normal earnings). This increased cost, with wages remaining equal, will reduce the demand for younger women; the quasi-fixed nature of the cost implies that their employment will fall more than their average hours of work.

For older women, for whom the costs of employment are unaffected, there will be both scale and substitution effects. The former will tend to reduce demand for their services, while the latter will tend to increase it. The overall effects of this policy on the demand for older women cannot be predicted from theory alone (however, the four factors affecting the elasticity of demand for labor can be used to analyze when the substitution effect will be large relative to the scale effect).

8. Major league baseball teams scout and hire younger players whom they then train in

the minor leagues for a period of three to five years. Very few of their trainees

(perhaps 5%) actually make it to the major leagues, but if they do they are bound to the team that owns their contract for a period of six years. After six years, the player can become a "free agent" and choose any major league team on which to play.

Keeping in mind that the major league teams pay the costs of, but derive no revenues from, their minor league teams, what would be the most important predictable effects of allowing players to become free agents immediately upon entry into the major

leagues?

Answer: During the training period, teams are paying the salaries of their minor league players and expending other resources on their training without receiving any revenues in return. These costs represent investments in general training. A firm has no incentives to offer general training at its own expense unless it can somehow tie the trainee to the firm for a period long enough to recoup its investment expenditures. The rule under which players are tied to the major league team owning their contract is intended to offer teams a period over which to recoup these general training expenses.

If players were able to become free agents immediately upon making it to the major leagues, teams that did not train these players would bid their wages up to a level equal to their marginal productivity. Teams offering the training would therefore have no way of recouping their investment expenditures, which can only be done by paying a wage less than marginal productivity. Thus, with immediate free agency, teams would no longer have incentives to scout and train their own players, and they would tend to adopt a strategy of "raiding" players already trained by other teams. The major effect of immediate free agency would therefore be to destroy the current minor league arrangements for training players. The major league teams might give up their minor league teams and rely solely on colleges for training professional baseball players. Immediate free agency might also cause independent baseball training schools to arise, with tuition charged directly to the trainees. A final alternative might be for the major league baseball teams to collectively operate a minor league system that is financed by assessing each team an equal share of the total costs of running the training operatio n.

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

2. Suppose that a firm is considering training a worker. The worker's MP L is $100

during the training period, but rises to $200 in the post-training period. The worker's wage is $100 during the training period, the cost of training is $50 and the discount rate is 10%. What is the most that a profit-maximizing firm can afford to pay the

worker in the second period?

Answer: The firm will undertake the training if the discounted net benefits from the post-training period exceed the net expense from the training period, i.e., if W0 + Z - MP0< (MP1 - W1)/(1 + r). Plug in the values to solve for W1 at the breakeven point. $100 + $50 - $100 = ($200 - W1)/1.1, or $50x1.1 = $200 - W1, so W1 = $145. If the post-training wage is less than $145, the firm will make a profit.

Suggested Essay Questions

1. The manager of a major league baseball team argues: “Even if I thought Player X

was washed up, I couldn’t get rid of him. He’s in the third year of a four-year, $24-million deal. Our team is in no position financially to eat the rest of his contract.”

Analyze the manager’s reasoning using economic theory.

Answer. A baseball team that has committed itself to a four-year contract has made an investment, in the hopes, of course, of receiving a return. The cost has been “sunk,” so it is of no relevance to any decision about how to use the player during the contract period. The only thing of relevance is the player’s marginal revenue productivity as compared to the marginal revenue productivity (less marginal cost to the team) of an alternative player.

2. One recent magazine article on economic recovery from a recession argued, “Labor

productivity growth usually accelerates in the first year of an expansion, because

f irms are slow to hire new labor.” Comment.

Answer. One reason firms are slow to hire in expansions is that they are slow to lay off workers during a recession. Workers in whom the firm has made an investment are paid less then the value of their marginal product, so that the firm can recoup investment costs, and this difference offers employment protection when productivity falls in a recession (because investment costs are sunk and the firm will continue to employ a worker in the short run as long as productivity exceeds the wage). As productivity rises during expansion, firms will not hire workers (which involves an investment) until the gap between productivity and wages is again large enough so that the firm can recoup investment costs.

3. An autho r recently asserted, “Low wage jobs provide fewer hours of work than high-

wage jobs.” Using economic theory, is this statement likely to be correct? Why?

Answer. Low wage jobs involve less training than high wage jobs, and if the training in high wage jobs is firm-specific, employers will want to substitute longer hours of work for hiring more workers. Thus, it is consistent with economic theory for employers to require longer hours of work for workers with more skills.

CHAPTER 6 - SUPPLY OF LABOR TO THE ECONOMY:

THE DECISION TO WORK

Answers to Even-Numbered Review Questions

2. Evaluate the following quote: “Higher take-home wages for any group should

increase the labor force participation rate for that group.”

Answer. This quotation is correct, because for labor force participation decisions, the substitution effect dominates the income effect. The strength of the income effect is relatively weaker when the initial hours of work are smaller. When initial hours of work are zero – as is the case when a person is out of the labor force – then the income effect is zero if leisure is a normal good (increased resources cannot induce one to increase the consumption of leisure, since leisure hours are already at their maximum).

4. The way the workers' compensation system works now, employees permanently

injured on the job receive a payment of $X each year whether they work or not.

Suppose the government were to implement a new program in which those who did not work at all got $0.5X but those who did work got $0.5X plus workers'

compensation of 50 cents for every hour worked (of course, this subsidy would be in addition to the wages paid by their employers). What would be the change in work incentives associated. with this change in the way workers' compensation payments are calculated?

Answer: This change in workers' compensation has two effects. First, it reduces the subsidy for people who do not work from $X to $0.5X. This reduction in income by itself would produce an income effect that tends to induce the injured worker to work more (he or she is poorer if not working than under the previous workers' compensation system). On the other hand, for those who work, the wage rate is increased by 50 cents an hour. (We assume here that the change in workers' compensation payments is not so large as to influence market wages.) The increased wage by itself would tend to induce injured workers to work more because the cost of leisure has risen by 50 cents an hour; however, the eventual outcome is theoretically unclear.

The effects of these changes can be seen in the figure below.

Along segment DE there is a clear-cut strengthening of work incentives. Segment DE has a steeper slope than the previous budget constraint (BQ and it also lies to the southwest o f BC. Thus, along segment DE there is a substitution effect inducing more work and an income effect that also induces more work. To the left of point E, however, along segment EF, there are income and substitution effects that work in opposite directions. Along segment EF the 50-cents-an-hour increase in the wage rate is sufficient to increase the injured worker's income under workers' compensation, thereby creating an income effect that reduces work incentives, other things equal. However, the substitutio n effect of the increased wage continues to exert an increase in work incentives and the outcome of the two effects is not predictable in advance.

Thus, if the tangency point between the worker's indifference curve and the full budget constraint used to be along BC but to the right of point E, the worker faces a clear-cut strengthening of work incentives under the new program. If, however, the worker's tangency point along BC was to the left of point E, the new program would have an unpredictable effect on work incentives.

6. Suppose the Social Security disability insurance (DI) program was structured so that

otherwise eligible recipients lost their entire disability benefit if they had any labor market earnings at all. Suppose, too, that Congress was concerned about the work disincentives inherent in this program, and that the relevant committee was studying two alternatives for increasing work incentives among those disabled enough to

qualify for it. One alternative was to reduce the benefits paid to all DI recipients but

make no other changes in the program. The other was to maintain the old benefit

levels (for those who receive them) but allow workers to earn $300 a month and still keep their benefits. Those who earn over $300 per month would lose all DI benefits.

Analyze the work incentive effects of both alternatives. (The use of graphic analyses will be of great help to you.)

Answer: The proposal to reduce the average DI benefit may cause recipients to seek work or it may not, depending on their preferences and the extent of the cut. Compare, for example, cases a, b, and c below.

The proposal to allow DI recipients to keep their benefits until a certain earnings level is reached will induce some of those now not working to work at least a little (case d). Others may have preferences that preclude work (case e). However, some of those who medically qualify for DI but would now work may decide to cut their hours of work (case f). Thus, it is not clear from theory which proposal would have the stronger work incentives.

8. The Tax Reform Act of 1986 was designed to reduce the marginal tax rate (the tax

rate on the last dollars earned) while eliminating enough deductions and loopholes so that total revenues collected by the government could remain constant. Analyze the work incentive effects of tax reforms that lower marginal tax rates while keeping total tax revenues constant.

Answer: Reducing the marginal tax rate has the effect of increasing the wage rate, because workers are allowed to keep more from any extra hours worked. Keeping tax

revenues constant suggests that workers' after-tax incomes also remain constant. Thus,

the Tax Reform Act tended to increase the wage while keeping workers' incomes

constant -- creating a pure substitution effect that tended to increase hours of work.

Answers to Even-Numbered Problems

2. Nina is able to select her weekly work hours. When a new bridge opens up, it cuts

one hour off Nina's commute to work. If both leisure and income are normal goods,

what is the ef fect of the shorter commute on Nina’s work time?

Answer. When the new bridge opened, Nina’s budget constraint shifted to the right in a

parallel fashion as the amount of available time for either work or leisure (as opposed to

commuting) was increased. This shift in her constraint created an income effect (she can

now work more and consume more leisure). Because both income and leisure are normal

goods, both would increase. The only way income can increase in this case is for her to

work more, so we must conclude that her extra hour per day from the shorter commute is

divided in some way between more work and more leisure. Therefore, she works more.

Suggested Essay Questions

1. In 2002, a French law went into effect that cut the standard workweek from 39 to 35

hours (workers got paid for 39 hours even though working 35), while at the same time

prohibiting overtime hours from being worked. (Overtime in France is paid at 25%

above the normal wage rate.) (a) Draw the old budget constraint, showing the

overtime premium after 39 hours of work. (b) Draw the new budget constraint. (c)

Analyze which workers in France are better off under the 2002 law. Are any worse

off? Explain.

Answer. In the drawing below, the old (pre-2002) constraint is ABC, where slope of BC

is 25% greater (in absolute value) than the slope of AB. The constraint created by the

new law is ADE, where earnings at D are equal to those at B, and the slope of DE is

horizontal (workers cannot get paid for more than 35 hours of work).

Income

C

B D

E

A

39 35 0 Hours of Work

close to B (that is, they worked close to 39 hours before), will also be better off if their

original utility-maximizing indifference curve passed below point D. However, for those

whose original utility-maximizing indifference curves passed above point D (almost

surely the case for most of those with original tangencies along BC), utility will fall under the new law.

2. Country X cuts the income tax rates applicable to those with the highest incomes, and

it newly adopts a wealth tax – a tax that is based on the value of family assets

(personal assets, real estate and financial assets) above a certain threshold. Discuss

the likely work incentive effects of these tax changes on high-income workers.

Answer. The new law changes the constraint from ABC to ADEF.

F

Income

C

E

B

D

A

Hours of Work Clearly, the income tax rate reduction increases the slope of the budget constraint

(increases the net wage rate). If the wealth tax reduces a person’s overall comm and over resources (which happens along segment DE), then work incentives are clearly increased – wages are increased while wealth falls. If the effect of the two tax changes serve to

increase both the wage rate and the command over resources (compare segment EC with EF), then the tax changes have an ambiguous effect on work incentives, because the

substitution and income effects have opposite effects on work incentives.

CHAPTER 7 - LABOR SUPPLY: HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTION,

THE FAMILY, AND THE LIFE CYCLE

Answers to Even-Numbered Review Questions

2. A recent study of the labor force participation rates of women in the post-World War

II period notes:

Over the long run women have joined the paid labor force because of a series of

changes affecting the nature of work. Primary among these was the rise of the

clerical and professional sectors, the increased education of women, labor saving

advances in households, declining fertility rates, and increased urbanization.

Relate each of these factors to the household production model of labor supply that

was outlined in Chapter 7.

Answer: One of the central aspects of the household production model of labor supply is the importance of the relative productivity in paid employment as compared to household

production. Increased opportunities in the clerical and professional sectors, as well as increased educational levels, serve to increase productivity in paid employment (that is,

to increase the wage rate that women can command). Declining fertility rates tend to reduce the productivity of hours spent at home, while the invention of labor saving devices in household production make it easier to substitute goods purchased with cash

for time at home; both of these factors flatten the household utility isoquants (an hour of household productivity forgone can be replaced more readily by goods purchased with money). Increased urbanization also tended to make it easier to substitute goods for household production. All these factors tended to raise market productivity relative to household productivity, and some of them served to increase the strength of the substitution effect relative to the income effect.

4. Is the following statement true, false, or uncertain? Explain.

"If a married woman's husband gets a raise, she tends to work less, but if she gets a raise, she tends to work more."

Answer: Ignoring the question of joint labor supply decisions, if a married woman's husband gets a raise, that raise (to her) has an income effect. This increased income without a corresponding increase in her wage rate tends to induce her to work fewer hours. However, if her wage rate rises, she will experience both an income and a substitution effect, and if she already works, theory cannot predict which one is dominant. If she is out of the labor force, a wage increase will increase her chances of labor force participation.

The text pointed out, though, that spouses may make their labor supply decisions jointly. For example, if the husband's wage increase caused him to work more, the wife may also decide to work more if they are complements in household production (or consumption). Thus, the answer to this question really depends upon whether one assumes the two spouses have household productivities that are interdependent; if so, they must make

their labor supply decisions jointly.

6. Several studies have indicated that for prime-age males, the income effect of a wage

increase tends to dominate the substitution effect. Other recent studies point out that hourly wages tend to rise over the early stages of the life cycle (the young receive

lower wages than the middle-aged) and that young males tend to work fewer hours than middle-aged males, other things equal.Employing a theory of life-cycle

allocation of time, explain the apparent discrepancy.

Answer: Studies showing that for prime-aged males the income effect of a wage increase tends to dominate the substitution effect look either at wage increases that have occurred as society has become wealthier and more productive or at wage rates across ind ividuals

in a population. In both cases there are both substitution effects and income effects of wage changes. However, studies of the life-cycle effects of lower wages in the early stages of one's working career with higher wages later on are examining these wage-change effects over an individual's lifetime, holding constant the individual's expected lifetime wealth. With these studies there is a substitution effect – leading to more work as wages rise – but no corresponding income or wealth effects. The latter studies are in the pure life-cycle mode of analysis, where at a given time individuals have an expected lifetime wealth and also face predictable changes in their wage rate as they age.

劳动经济学习题

一、名词解释 1.劳动力需求弹性：在微观上，所谓劳动力需求弹性是指劳动力需求数量的相对变动与 工资相对变动之比。它显示了劳动力需求数量对工资率变动反应的灵敏程度。 包括劳动需求的自身工资弹性和交叉工资弹性。 2.职业决策：是在求职条件既定的情况下，对最佳就业方式的分析、判断和决定。在职 业能力、岗位、意向一定的情况下，确定自己合适的职业位置的过程。 3.劳动权：一是为劳动者提供劳动条件，使其能够享有进行劳动的权利 二是为劳动者提供劳动报酬，使其具有能够生存与发展的权利. 4.劳动力流动：是指具有一定劳动能力的劳动者为了与生产资料的结合，在生产过程中 之外，在不同地域和不同的工作岗位之间的迁移和流动。 劳动力流动的形式： ①劳动力从农业部门流向非农业部门②第一、二产业向第三产业流动 ③体力劳动向脑力劳动流动④农村的劳动力向城市流动 5.二元经济结构：指发展中国家普遍存在的，一方面是以现代方法进行生产的、以现代 化城市为中心的现代工业部门，另一方面是以土著方法进行生产的、以落后的农村为中 心的传统农业部门并存的状况。 6.人力资本：人力资本是指体现在劳动者身上的、以劳动者的数量和质量表示的非物质 资本，表现为劳动者在一定时间内所具有一定的健康体魄、操作技能和劳动熟练程度154 7.职业福利：所谓职业福利，又称企业福利，包括职工福利或集体福利、职工生活福利、 生活服务等，是指基于业缘关系，行业和企业单位在工资和社会保险之外，为满足职工 物质文化生活需要，保证本系统、本行业、本单位职工及其亲属的一定生活质量，以职 工为对象而提供的各种福利津贴、设施、服务和福利项目的总称。 8.工会化：工会化亦即工会化程度，指的是工会发展中工会会员数量增减及成份变化 的绝对量，以及工会会员占劳动力人口总量的比例。 9.工会：工会是劳动者大众为了获得并维护自身的经济与政治利益（包括劳动权益、经 济权益、政治权益等）而自愿结合的有组织的群体或团体。 10.劳动保护：指国家和企业为了保护在生产者在生产劳动过程中的安全与健康，为改 善劳动条件、防止伤亡事故和职业病发生而采取的各种组织和技术措施的总和。 11.失业：所谓失业是指劳动力供给与劳动力需求在总量或结构上的失衡所形成，具有 劳动能力并有就业要求的劳动者处于没有就业岗位的状态。

劳动经济学课后习题参考题答案

《劳动经济学》课后思考题 参考答案

第一章绪论 二、思考题 1．如何理解劳动经济学的价值？ （1）劳动经济学研究的是社会经济问题。例如，民工荒、政府要求增加最低工资、劳动生产率下降、农民工工资急剧上升、工资增长不均等、工作培训、国有企业高管人员的高工资受到质疑、收入分配不平、农村移民增加、劳动力市场全球化扩大等等。 （2）数量上的重要性。在西方经济中，大部分国民收入并不是来源于资本收入（利润、租金和利息），而是来源于工资。绝大多数居民户的主要收入来源是提供劳务。从数量上看，劳动才是我们最重要的经济资源。 （3）独有的特性。劳动力市场的交易完全不同于产品市场的交易。劳动力市场是一个极有意义和复杂的场所。劳动力市场的复杂性意味着供给和需求概念在应用于劳动力市场时必须做出重大的修改和调整。在供给方面，劳动者“出售”给雇主的劳务与该劳动者不可分离。除了货币报酬，工人还关注工作的健康和安全性、工作难度、就业稳定性、培训和晋升机会等，这类非货币因素也许与直接收入同样重要。这样，工人的供给决策要比产品市场的供给概念复杂得多。 （4）收益的广泛性。无论是个人还是社会，都可以从劳动经济学中得到许多启示和教益。从劳动经济学得到的信息和分析工具有助于人们做出与劳动力市场有关的决策。从个人角度看。大量内容将直接与我们有关，如工作搜寻、失业、歧视、工资、劳动力流动等。对于企业管理者来说，从对劳动经济学的理解中所得到的知识背景和分析方法，对做出有关雇用、解雇、培训和工人报酬等方面的管理决策也应该是十分有用的。从社会角度看，了解劳动经济学将使人们成为更有知识、更理智的公民。 2．劳动经济学的研究方法有哪些？ 首先要明确劳动经济学的基本假设。劳动经济学的假设主要表现在以下四个方面： （1）资源的相对稀缺性。如同商品和资本是稀缺的一样，劳动力资源也是有限的。时间、个人收入和社会资源的稀缺性构成了经济学分析的基本前提。 （2）效用最大化。由于劳动资源的稀缺性，人类社会进行生产经营活动时，必须研究劳动资源的合理配置和利用。而在市场经济条件下，市场运作的主体是企业和个人。它们都有自己的目标，都力争实现各自的效用最大化。当然，并不是说任何一个市场主体的每一种经济选择和经济决策行为都达到了效用最大化的目标，而是说主体的行为可以用效用最大化的观点加以分析和预测。 （3）行为的有目的性。稀缺性这一假设所隐含的重要命题是，人们对资源的使用存在着供求问题，存在着成本，特别是机会成本的问题。劳动力资源也是稀缺的。对劳动者个人而言，选择一种职业必须有所放弃，其本身不仅具有直接的成本和收益，还有因个人劳动力的有限而引起的放弃另外其它选择的成本和收益问题。用人单位的情况也是一样，招聘张三，也面临着放弃对王五的雇用。 （4）行为的适应性。认为劳动力市场参与者的行为是理性的，并不是说他们总能达到预期的目标。信息的不完全或信息传递的不完全、无法预料事件的发生和其他人的选择都会影响我们选择的结果，但即使我们后来认为是“较差”的选择，也被认为是基于净收益的预期而做出的。 劳动经济学的研究方式主要有两个：

劳动经济学(鲍哈斯版)重点复习题总结

劳动经济学复习题总结（自） 第二章 1.当非劳动收入减少时，工作时数会发生什么变化？（P68） 答：（P38-39） 在工资保持不变的情形下，非劳动收入的变化对工作时数的影响称为收入效应。 （1）如果闲暇是一种正常商品，那么非劳动收入减少，导致预算线下移，预算线和效用曲线交点右移，闲暇减少，导致工作时数增加； （2）如果闲暇是一种低档商品，那么非劳动收入减少，导致对闲暇需求增大，工作时间反而减少。 2.为什么在过去的一个世纪中妇女的劳动力参与率提高的幅度如此之大？（P68） 答：（P54-55） （1）女性真实工资的明显提高； （2）生育行为的变化：①生育观念变化（不愿生）；②市场工资的提高也使得抚养孩子成为一种昂贵的家庭活动，因而成为家中孩子数减少的原因之一——③致使妇女的保留工资的下降，更愿意进入劳动力市场； 家庭生产过程中技术变革的影响。①生产家庭产品所需要的时间数量被大幅度削减，解放女性劳动力；②缩小夫妻之间边际产品的差距，减缓对专业分工的需要，进一步促进女性劳动力参与率的提高。 第三章 1.什么是新增工作者效应？什么是受阻工作者效应？（P107） 答： （1）新增工作者效应：指在经济衰退时期由于家中主要劳动力失去工作（家庭收入下降），次级劳动者不得不寻找工作弥补家庭收入损失。因此新增工作者效应意味着次级劳动力参与率具有一种逆（反）周期趋势。

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一、填空 1.劳动经济学是经济学的重要分支，是一门研究（劳动的人）的学问。 1．一般来说，人口总量增多，则劳动力资源（增加）。 2.对劳动力拥有不可动摇的所有权的是（劳动者）。 3.劳动力市场的基本功能是( 决定就业量和工资)。 14．工资率的变化能带来两种效应：收入效应和（替代效应）。 4.当工资率上升所产生的替代效应大于收入效应时，工人愿意工作的时间将（增加）。4．当工资率增加所产生的收入效应大于替代效应时，个体的工作时间为（减少）。 2、假定其他条件不变，工资总额不变而劳动时间缩短，则劳动供给（增加） 3．与横轴平行的劳动力供给曲线的劳动力供给弹性为(无穷大)。 6．向右上方倾斜且较为平缓的劳动供给曲线的弹性(较大)。 7.工资率变动对劳动力需求的影响包括（收入效应和替代效应）. 8.劳动需求曲线向左下方向移动，说明劳动力需求（减少）。 20．劳动需求曲线向右上方向移动，说明劳动力需求（增加）。 A．增加B．减少 C．不变D．难以判定 9.两种劳动力间为总互补关系时，其交叉工资弹性为（负）。 10.两种劳动力间为总替代关系时，其交叉工资弹性为（正）。 11.劳动力需求增加，劳动力供给减少时，则均衡工资率( 增加)。 17.封闭型蛛网的条件是( 劳动力供给弹性等于需求弹性). 12．劳动力市场均衡时，工资率等于（边际产品价值）。 7．美国经济学家（刘易斯）提出了发展中国家存在着二元经济结构。 8．农村剩余劳动力转移的充分和必要条件（农业剩余）。 13.1959年，美国经济学家（西奥多·舒尔茨）首次提出了人力资本的概念。 14.人力资源配置就是依据社会经济发展的需要，通过一定的形式和机制科学合理地调配人力资源的（管理）行为。 15.一般培训的成本通常由（员工）来支付。 10．特殊培训的成本通常由(企业)来支付。 16.实行计件工资制，工人低生产率的风险主要由（工人）承担。 17如果货币工资不变，物价上涨，实际工资（下降） 18.我国实行的最低工资制度是（按地区规定不同的最低工资标准） 19.集体谈判的双方为（雇主和工会）。 A．雇主和员工B．雇主和工会C．雇主和政府D．政府和工会 20.反映失业率与通货膨胀率关系的曲线是（菲利浦斯曲线）。 1. 无差异曲线的特征是: 第一，无差异曲线是一条向右下方倾斜的曲线，其斜率为负值。第二，在同一平面图上可以有无数条无差异曲线。 第三，在同一平面图上，任意两条无差异曲线不能相交。 第四，无差异曲线是一条凸向原点的线。; ; ; . 2．劳动力需求弹性的基本类型有哪几种？ 需求无弹性, 需求有无限弹性，单位需求弹性，需求富有弹性，需求缺乏弹性 2．据边际生产力递减规律，在其他生产要素不变时，由劳动投入的增加所引起产量的变动可以分为三个阶段: 第一，边际产量递增阶 段。第二，边际产量递减阶段。第三，总产量绝对减少。

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劳动经济学课后习题参 考答案 Company Document number：WUUT-WUUY-WBBGB-BWYTT-1982GT

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法，对做出有关雇用、解雇、培训和工人报酬等方面的管理决策也应该是十分有用的。从社会角度看，了解劳动经济学将使人们成为更有知识、更理智的公民。 2．劳动经济学的研究方法有哪些 首先要明确劳动经济学的基本假设。劳动经济学的假设主要表现在以下四个方面：（1）资源的相对稀缺性。如同商品和资本是稀缺的一样，劳动力资源也是有限的。时间、个人收入和社会资源的稀缺性构成了经济学分析的基本前提。 （2）效用最大化。由于劳动资源的稀缺性，人类社会进行生产经营活动时，必须研究劳动资源的合理配置和利用。而在市场经济条件下，市场运作的主体是企业和个人。它们都有自己的目标，都力争实现各自的效用最大化。当然，并不是说任何一个市场主体的每一种经济选择和经济决策行为都达到了效用最大化的目标，而是说主体的行为可以用效用最大化的观点加以分析和预测。 （3）行为的有目的性。稀缺性这一假设所隐含的重要命题是，人们对资源的使用存在着供求问题，存在着成本，特别是机会成本的问题。劳动力资源也是稀缺的。对劳动者个人而言，选择一种职业必须有所放弃，其本身不仅具有直接的成本和收益，还有因个人劳动力的有限而引起的放弃另外其它选择的成本和收益问题。用人单位的情况也是一样，招聘张三，也面临着放弃对王五的雇用。 （4）行为的适应性。认为劳动力市场参与者的行为是理性的，并不是说他们总能达到预期的目标。信息的不完全或信息传递的不完全、无法预料事件的发生和其他人的选择都会影响我们选择的结果，但即使我们后来认为是“较差”的选择，也被认为是基于净收益的预期而做出的。 劳动经济学的研究方式主要有两个：

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