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M: Excuse me, Prof. Thomson. I know your office hours are tomorrow, but I was wondering if you have a few minutes free now to discuss something.

W: Sure, John. What do you want to talk about?

M: Well, I have some quick questions about how to write about the research project that I do this semester about Climate Variations.

W: Oh, yes. You were looking for Variations in Climate in the G city area, right? How far along have you been gotten?

M: I’ve gotten my data, so I’m starting to summarize it now, preparing graph and stuff. But I’m just…I’m looking at it and I’m afraid that is not enough, but I’m not sure what else to put into the report.

W: I hear the same thing from every student. You know, you have to remember now that you are the expert on what you have done. So think about what you need to include if you’re going to explain your research project to someone with general or casual knowledge about the subject like your parents. That’s usually my rule____ Would my parents understand this.

M: Uhh, I get it.

W: I hope you can recognize by my thing how much you do know about the subject.

M: Right, I understand. I was wondering if I should also include the notes from the research journals you suggest I keep.

W: Yes, definitely. You should use them to indicate what your evolution and thought was through time. So just set up, you know, what was the purpose of what you were doing. To try to understand the climate variability of this area. What you did and what your approach was.

M: Ok. So, for example, I study meteorological records, I look at climate charts, I use different methods for analyzing the data like certain statistic tests, and then I discuss the results. Is that what you mean?

W: Yes, that’s right. You should include all of that. The statisti cal tests are specially important, and also be sure you include good reference section where all your published and unpublished data came from. Could you have a lot of unpublished climate data?

M: Um. Something just came out of my mind and went out the other side

W: It happens to me a lot. So, I have come up with a pretty good memory management tool. I carry a little pad with me over time and jot down questions and ideas that I don’t want to forget. For example, I went to the doctor with my daughter and her baby son last week, and we know we wouldn’t remember everything we want to ask the doctor, so we actually made at least five things we want answers to.

M: N otepad is a good idea. Since I’m so busy now, at the end of this semester I’m getting pretty forgetful these days. How can I just remember what I’m going to say before

W: Good, I was hoping you come up with it.

M: Yes.It ends up that I have data more than just in the G city area, so I also include some regional data in the report. With everything else, it should be a pretty good indicate of climate of this part of state.

W: Sounds good. I’ll be happy to look over a draft version before you hand the final copy if you wish.

M: Great. I plan to get you the draft of paper by next Friday. Thanks very much. Well, see you.

Track 3 A Philosophy Class

Ok, another ancient Greek philosopher we need to discuss is Aristotle---Aristotle’s Ethical Theory. What Aristotle’s Ethical Theory is all about is this: he’s trying to show you how to be happy and what true happiness is. Now, why is he interested in human happiness? It’s not just because it’s something that all people want or aim for. It’s more than that. But to get there, we need to first make a very important distinction. Let me introduce a couple of technical terms: extrinsic value and intrinsic value. To understand Aristotle’s interest in happiness, you need to understand this distinction. Something we aim for and value not for themselves but for what they bring about in addition to themselves. If I value something as a means to something else, then it has and we will call extrinsic value. Other things we desire and hope to be valuable for themselves alone. If we value something not as a means to something else, but for its own sake, let’s say that i t has intrinsic value. Exercise, there may be some people who value exercise for itself, but I don’t. I value exercise because if I exercise I tend to stay healthier than I would if I didn’t. So I desire to engage in an exercise and I value exercise extrinsically not for its own sake but as a means to something beyond it---it brings me good health. Health, why do I value good health? Well, here it gets a little more complicate for me. Health is important for me because I can’t do other things I want to do—p lay music, teach philosophy if I’m ill. So health is important to me and has value to me as a means to a productive life, but health is also important to me because I just kind of like to be healthy, it feels good. It’s pleasant to be healthy and unpleasant not to be. So to some degree, I value health both for itself and as a means to something else—productivity. It’s got extrinsic and intrinsic value for me. Then there are something that I just value them for themselves. I’m a musician, not a professional musician, and I just play musical instruments for fun. Why do I value playing music? Well, like most amateur musicians, I only play because, well, I just enjoy it, something that’s and ends in itself. Now, something else I value is teaching. Why? Well, it brings a modest income, but I could make more money doing other things. I do it even if they didn’t pay me. I just enjoy teaching. In this sense, it’s intrinsic itself. Teaching is not something that has intrinsic value for all people and that’s t rue generally. Most things that enjoy and end in themselves vary from person to person. Some people value teaching intrinsically, but others don’t. So how do all those relate to human happiness? Well, Aristotle asks---is there something that all human beings value and value only intrinsically for its own sake and only for its own sake? If you could find such a thing, that would be the universal final good or truly the automatic purpose or goal for all human beings. Aristotle thought the answer was Yes. What is it? Happiness. Everyone would agree, he argues, that happiness is the ultimate end to be valued for itself, and really only for itself. For what other purpose is there being happy, what does it yield. The attainment of happiness becomes the ultimate or highest good for Aristotle. The next question that Aristotle raises is what is happiness. We all want it, we all desire it, we all seek it. It’s the goal we have in our life. But what is it and how do we find it. Well, here he notes with some frustration people disagree. But he does give a couple of criteria or features to keep in mind as we look for what true human happiness is. True happiness should be, as he puts it, complete. Complete…its all we require. Well, true human happiness, if you had that, what else do you need? Nothing. And second,

true happiness should be something that I can obtain on my own. I shouldn’t have to rely on other people for it. Many people value fame and seek fame. Fame for them becomes the goal. But according to Aristotle, this won’t work either, because fame depends altogether too much on other people. I can’t get it on my own without help from other people. In the end, Aristotle says that true happiness is the exercise of reason. A life of intellectual contemplation… of thinking. So, let’s see how it comes to that.

Track 5 A Psychology lecture

Now many people consider John W to be the founder of behaviorism, and like other behaviorists, he believes that psychologists should study only the behaviors they can observe and measure, and they are not interested in mental processes. While a person could describe his thought, no one else can see his behaviorism to verify the accuracy of his report. But one thing you can observe is muscular habits. What W did was to observe muscular habits because he viewed them as manifestation of thinking. One kind of habits that he studied are Laryngeal Habits. W though Laryngeal Habits, you know, from larynx, in other words related to the voice box, he thought those habits were an expression of thinking. He argues that for very young children thinking is really talking out loud to oneself because they talk out loud even if they are not trying to communicate with someone in particular. As individual matures, that overt talking to oneself becomes covert talking to oneself. But thinking still shows up as a Laryngeal Habit. One of bits of evidences that support this is that when people are trying to solve a problem they typically have increasing muscular activity in the throat region. That is if you put electricity on the throat and measure muscle potential and muscle activity, you discover that when people are thinking like if they are diligently trying to solve a problem there is muscular activity in the throat region. So W made the argument that problem solving or thinking can be defined as a set of behaviors or a set of responses, and in this case, the response he observed was the throat activity. That means they called it as Laryngeal Habits. Now, I am thinking what I’m going to say, my mus cles in my throat are responding, so thinking can be measured as muscle activity. Now the M theory…Yes?

Student: Prof. Blake, did he happen to look at people who sign? I mean deaf people.

He did in deed, and to jump ahead, what one finds in deaf individuals who use sign languages when they’ve given problems in various kinds they have muscular changes in their hands when they are trying to solve problems. Muscle changes in hands just like muscular changes going on in the throat region for speaking individuals. So, for W, thinking is like a dead goal with the activity of muscles. A related concept of thinking was developed by William James, called Ideomotor Action. Ideal Mode Action is an action that occurs without our noticing, without our being aware of it. I’ll g ive you a simple example, if you think locations, there tends to be eye movement that occurs with you thinking about that location. In particular, from where we are sitting, imagine you are asked to think of our university library. Well, if you close your eyes and think of the library, if you are sitting directly facing me, then according to this notion, your eyeballs will move slightly to the left, to your left, because the library is in that general direction. James and others said this is an idea leading to an m ode action, and it’s why it is called ideal mode action and an idea leads to a

mode activity. If you wish to impress you friends and relatives, you can change this simple process into a magic trick. Ask people to do something such as I’ve just described: t hink of something on their left, think of something on their right. You get them to think about two things on either side with their eyes closed, and you watch their eyes very carefully, and if you do so, you will discover you can see rather clearly the eye movement, that is you can see the movement of the eyeballs. Now, then you say “think of either one, and I’ll tell you which you are thinking of.”

Okay, well, W makes the assumption that muscular activity is equivalent to thinking, but given everything we’ve been talking about here, I want to ask how’s the alternative to the mode theory. This clean that the muscular activity is equivalent to thinking

Is there anything else that might account for this changing in muscular activity other than thing that it is thinking, the answer is clearly Yes

Is there any way to answer the question definitively, now, I think the answer is No

Track 7 An Astronomy Class

Ok, let’s get going. Today, I’m going to talk about how the asteroid _____was discovered. I’m going to start by writing some numbers on the board. Here they are. We will start with 0, then3, 6, 12… tell me what I’m doing.

W: Multipling by two?

Right. I’m doubling the numbers. So, two times 12 is 24. And the next one I’m going to write after 24 would be 48, then 96. We’ll stop there for now. Now I’ll write another row of number s under that. T ell me what I’m doing. 4, 7, 10… How am I getting the second row?

M: Adding 4 to the numbers in the first row.

I’m adding 4 to each number in the first row to give you a second row. So the last two would be 52, 100. And now tell me what I am doing.

W: putting in a decimal?

Yes. I divided all those numbers by ten by putting in a decimal point. Now I’m going to write the names of planets on those numbers. Mercurial, Venus, Earth, Mars. So what do the numbers mean? Do you remember from the reading?

M: Is it the distance of the planets from the Sun?

Right. In astronomical units, not perfect but tantalizingly close. The value from Mars is off by six or seven percent or so. It’s…but it’s within 10% of the average distance from Mars to the Sun. But I kind of have to skip the one after Mars for now. Then Jupiter’s right there for five point something and then Saturn about ten astronomical units from the Sun. Well, this pattern is known as B.. law. It is really a scientific law not in the sense of predicting gravitation mathematically or something, but it’s attempting a pattern in the spacing of planets. And it was noticed by B.. hundreds of years ago. Well, you can imagine there was some interest in why the 2.8 spot of … was skipped. But there wasn't’anything obvious there, in the earlier telescopes. Then what happened in the late 1700s, the discovery of ….?

W: Another planet

the next planet was out—Uranus, after Saturn. Look, Uranus fits in the next spot in the pattern pretty nicely, not perfectly but close. And people got really excited about the validity of the thing and finding the missing objects between Mars and Jupiter. And telescopes, remember, were getting better, so people went to work on finding objects that would be at that missing distance form the

Sun . And then in 1801, the object Ceres was discovered. And Ceres was in the right place, the missing spot, but was way too faint to be a planet. It looked like a little star. And because of its starlike appearance, it was called asteroid. Ok? Aster is Greek for star as in astronomy. And so, Ceres was the first and the largest of many objects discovered at that same distance, not just one thing but all the objects found at that distance form the asteroid belt… So, the asteroid … is the most famous success of this Bode’s Law. That’s how the asteroid belt was discovered.

Track 9 A Botany Class

Hi, everyone. Good to see you all today. Actually I expected the population to be a lot lower today, it typically runs between fifteen and sixteen percent on the day the research papers do. I was hoping to have your exams back today, but the situation was that when I was away from weekend and I was supposed to get here yesterday at five and I expected to fully complete all the exams by midnight or so, which is the time that I usually go to bed, but my flight was delayed and I didn’t get here until one o’clock in the morning. Anyway, I will do my best to have them finished by the next time we meet.

Okay, in last class we started talking about useful plant fibers. In particular, we talked about cotton fibers which we say were very useful not only in the textile industry but also in the chemical industry and in the production of many products, such as plastic, paper, explosive,and so on. Today, we’ll continue talking about useful fibers and w e’ll begin with fibers that are commonly known as MH.

Now, for some strange reasons, many people believe that MH is Hemp plant, but MH is not really Hemp. It is actually a member of the banana family. It even bears little banana shape fruits. The M part of the name makes sense, because MH is produced chiefly in the Philippine Island, and of course the capital city of Philippine is M.

Now, as fibers go, MH fiber are very long , and they can easily be several feet of length, are also very strong and very flexible. They have one more characteristic that is very important and that is they are exceptionally resistant to salt water. And this combination of characteristics—long, strong, flexible and resistant to salt water make MH a great material for ropes, especially for ropes that are going to be used in ocean going ships. In fact, by the early 1940s, even the steel cables were available, most ships in the U.S. were not molded with steel cables, they were molded with MH ropes.

Now why was that? Well, the main reason was that the steel cables degrade very, very quickly in contact with salt water. If you’ve ever been to San Francisco, you know that the golden bridge is red. And it’s red because they zinc paint on those steel cables. But they started one end of the bridge and they worked to the other end, and by the time they finished, it’s already time to go back and start painting the beginning of the bridge again, because the bridge was built of steel cables, and steel cables can not take salt air unless they are treated repeatedly with zinc-based paint.

On the other hand, plant products like MH, you can drag through the ocean for weeks on end. If you want to tie a anchor to it, drop it right to the ocean, that’s no problem, because plant fibers can stand up for months even years and directly contact with salt water. Okay, so how do you take plant fibers that individually you can break with your hands and turn them into a rope that strong enough to move a ship away thousands of tons. Well, what you do is to extract these long fibers from the MH, and then you take several of these fibers and group them into a bundle because by

grouping the fibers you greatly increase their breaking strength, that bundle of fibers is much stronger than any other individual fibers that compose it. And then you take the bundle of fibers and twist it a little bit because by twisting it you increase its breaking strength even more. And you take several of these little bundles and you group and twist them into bigger bundles which then you group and twist into even bigger bundles and so on and eventually you end up with a very, very strong rope.

Track 11

M: Hi, Hellen, How are you doing?

W: Pretty good. Thanks. How are you?

M: Okay.

W: Did you…um…have a chance to look at my graduate school application, you know, the statement of purpose I wrote.

M: Well, yeah. In fact, here it is. I just read it.

W: Oh, great. What did you think?

M: Basically it’s good. What you might actually do is take some of different points here and actually break them out into separate paragraphs. So one your purpose for applying for graduate study, why do you want to go to graduate school and the area of your specialty, and why do you want to do the area you specify. What you want to do with your degree when you get it?

W: Ok.

M: Those are…There are pretty clear on those four points they want.

W: Right.

M: So you may just break them out into, you know, separate paragraphs and expand on each point some. But really what’s critical is that you get let yourself come through. So you get them see you in these statements. Expand some more on what’s happened in your life and what shows your motivation and interest in this area---geology. Let them what really, what captures your imaginations about this area.

W: Ok, so make a little more personal? That’s ok?

M: That’s fine. They look for that stuff. You don’t want go over all.

W: Right.

M: But it’s critical that somebod y see what your passion is and your personal motivation for doing this.

W: Ok

M: And that’s gonna to come out here. Let’s see, y ou might also give a little, since this is your only chance to do it, you might give a little more explanation about your unique undergraduate background. So, you know, I want you through, you know, the music program. What you got from that and why you decided to change. I mean it is kind of unusual to go from music to geology. Right?

W: Yeah. I was, I was afraid that, you know, maybe the personal type stuff wouldn’t be what they want. But…

M: No, in fact it’s… Give an example, I had a friend w hen I was in undergraduate, went to a

medical school. And he put on his medical school application, and he could actually tell somebody actually rare because he had asthma and the reason he wanted to go to medical school was he said he wanted to do sports medicine because, you know, he had this real interest. He was an athlete too, and wanted to help athletes who have this physical problem. He always tells … somebody actually read the letters, because they would always ask him about that.

W: So something unique.

M: Yeah. So see, y ou know, that’s good. And I think probably, you know, your music background is the most unique thing that you got your records.

W: Right.

M: So you see, you get to make yourself stand out from a couple of a hundred of applications. Does that help any?

W: Yeah, it dose. It gives me some good ideas.

M: And what you might also do too, you know, you might get a friend to prove it--something in some point.

W: Oh, sure. Sure.

M: Also, think about presentation. How the application looks, you know, ways you’re showing some other skills here, like organization, a lot of stuff that they’re not formally asking for they are looking at. So your presentation formats, your grammar, all that stuff they are looking at in your materials at the same time.

W: Right. Ok.

Track 12 Review for a Biology Examination

M: Ok, so, what do you think we should go over next?

W: How about if we go over the stuff about how bacteria become resistant to antibiotics.

M: Ok

W: But First of all, though, how many pages do we left? I told my roommate I would meet her at the library at 7 o’clock.

M: Um… There are only a few pages left. We should be finished in a few minutes.

W: Ok, so, um…

M: About how bacteria become resistant to antibiotics.

W: Oh, yeah, ok. So, you know that some bacteria cells are able to resistant to the drugs we use against them and t hat’s because they have the special genes that, like, protect them from drugs. M: Right. If I remember correctly, I think the genes like, weaken antibiotics, stop the antibiotics from getting in the bacteria cells, something like that?

W: Exactly. So, when bacteria have these genes, it’s very difficult for the antibiotics to kill the bacteria.

M: Right.

W: So, do you remember what those genes are called?

M: Um…

W: Resistance Genes.

M: Resistance Genes. Right, resistance genes, ok.

W: And that makes sense, right, because they help the bacteria resist antibiotics.

M: Yeah, that makes sense, ok

W: Ok. But the question is how do bacteria get the resistance genes?

M: How do they get the resistance genes? They just inherit them from their parent cells, right? W: Ok. Yeah, that’s true. They can inherit them form their parent cells. But that’s not what I’m talking about.

M: Ok.

W: I’m talk ing about how they get resistance genes from other cells and their environment. You know, from the other cells around them.

M: Oh, I see what you mean. Is that the stuff about humping genes or something like that?

W: Right. Although they are actually called Jumping Genes, not Humping genes

M: Ok. Jumping Genes

W: Yeah. But they have another name too, but I can’t think of. Let me see if I can find it here in the book.

M: I think it’s probably…um…

W: Oh, ok, here it is. Transposons,that’s what they are called.

M: Let me see. Ok,transposons, transposons. So, transposons is another name for a Jumping gene?

W: Right. Those tr… are, you know, like a little bit DNA. They are able to move from one cell to another. That’s why they’re called Jumping genes. The kind of, you know, jump from one cell to another.

M: Ok.

W: The se tr… are how resistance genes are able to get from one bacteria cell to another bacteria cell. What happens is that a resistance gene from one cell attaches itself to a tr…and then when the tr… jumps to another cell….

M: The other cell gets this resistant gene and…

W: Right.

M: That’s how it becomes resistant to antibiotics

W: Right.

M: Wow. That’s really cool. So t hat’s h ow it happens

W: That’s how it happens.

Track 14 An Environmental Science Class

So, I want to discuss a few other terms here, actually some, um… some ideas about how we manage our resources. Let’s talk about what that means. If we take resource like water, now maybe we should get a little bit more specific here, back from more general case and talk about underground water in particular. So hydro geologists have tried to figure out how much water can we take out from underground sources. That has been an important question. Let me ask you guys, how much water, based on what you know so far, could you take out of , say, an aquifer… under the city.

Std A: As much as what gets recharged?

Ok. So we wouldn’t like to take out more than naturally comes into it. The implication is that, well, if you only take as much out as comes in. Y ou’re not gonna to deplete the mount of water that stores in there. Right? Wrong. But that’s the principle. That’s the idea behind how we manage our water supplies. It’s called S afe Yield. Basically what this message says is that you can pump as much water out of the system as naturally recharges, as naturally flows back in. So this principle of safe yield is based on balancing what we take out with what gets recharged. But what it does is it ignores how much water naturally comes out of the system, and natural system of certain matter of recharge comes in and certain matter of water naturally flows out through springs, streams and lakes, and over long term the amount that’s stored in the aquifer doesn’t really change much. It’s balanced. Now humans come in and start taking water out of the system. How have we changed the equation?

Std B: It’s not balanced any more?

Right. We take water out but water also naturally flows out. And t he recharge rate doesn’t change. So the result is we’ve reduced the amount of water that stores in the underground system. If you keep doing that long enough, if you pump as much water out as naturally comes in, gradually the underground water level will drop. And when that happens, they can’t fix service water. How? Well underground systems there are natural discharge points, places where the water flows out from the underground systems, out of lakes and streams. Well, a drop of water level can mean those discharge points will eventually dry up, and that means water’s not getting to lakes and streams that depend on it. So we end up reducing the surface water supply, too. You know, in the state of Arizona, we’re managing some major water supplies with the pr inciple of safe yield and under this method they will eventually dry up the natural discharge points of those aquifer systems. Now, why is this issue? Well, aren’t some of you going to want to live in the state for a while? W on’t your kids grow up here, and your kids’ kids? You may be concerned with “dose Arizona have water supplies which is sustainable—key word here. What that means? The general definition of sustainable is whether it be enough to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future to have the availability to have the same resources. Now, I hope you see these two ideas are incompatible---sustainability and safe yield. Because what sustainability means is that it’s sustainable for all systems depend on the water, for the people who use it, and for supplying water to the dependent like some streams. So I’m gonna to repeat this. So, if we are using a safe yield method, we’re only balancing what we take out with what gets recharged, but don’t forget, water also flows out natu rally. Then the amount has stored under ground gradually gets reduced, and that gonna to l ead to another problem: these discharge points with water flow out to the lakes and streams, they’re gonna to dry up. Ok.

Track 16 Listen to part of lecture in a Philosophy Class, the Prof. has been talking about Ethics.

Ok, if we’re going to discuss goodness and justice, what makes an individual good, a society just or virtuous, and then we need to start with ancient Greeks. So we will start with Plato, Plato’s philosophy. Now, some of you may have studied Plato’s philosophy in some other course, so that may be easy. Ok, at the risk of boring you, let me give you just an overview of Plato’s Ethical theory. Plato says the soul has, and by soul he simply means that animates the body gives a life.

Anyway he says that the soul has three separate parts, called…um…faculties, which we’ll come back to. He believed that goodness in an individual was to be found when the three parts of the soul work together, when they weren’t in conflict but existed in harmony. A good or a just person will have a soul in which the three faculties work well together. So how does he arrive at that analysis? Well, he starts out in his very famous work The Republic. Um… he starts out by saying i t’s very difficult to get a grasp of what the individual soul looks like. So together with some idea of what the individual human soul is like, he says we should study the structure of society. What kinds of people and activities every society has to have? He argues that every society has to have three groups of people: workers, soldiers and leaders, and each has a sort of defining characteristic. Every society has to have workers like farmers or people who work in factories, producing all the things that we need for everyday life. And according to Plato, the key feature of workers is that they focus on their own desires or appetites, interested in satisfying the needs of the body, so workers are associated with desire. Ok? Now if you live in a society that has a good amount of wealth, good agriculture, good industry, other societies are probably going to try to take it, so you need a class of soldiers, who are supposed to protect the state from external threats. Well, the soldiers, well, they are going to be in dangerous situation quite frequently, so you need people with a lot of high spirit and emotional type of individual. Emotion is what characterizes this group. And then Plato says the third group you need is leaders. Their main role will be to think rationally, to use their reason and intellect to make decisions. As decision makers, leaders determine what the state is to do, how the affairs of citizens are to be run. Plato then asks himself, ok, assume we’ve gotten such a society with these three groups, when will the society be a good, um…, a just society. Well, you can only have a good society when its three parts are working well together, each doing its proper thing. And Plato believes that this can only happen if workers and soldiers learn moderation or self-control. But why? Why do workers and soldiers have to learn self-control? Well, how can a society flourish if the workers and soldiers don’t cont rol their desires and emotions? Plato thinks that if they are not under control, workers will sleep too much and play too much and so they’re not going to get their jobs done, and soldiers need to channel their high spiritedness in a certain direction, precisely by being courage ous, but you’re not going to get there automatically. You need to teach them this kind of moderation, so you need an educational system that, first of all, will train the leaders, so they’ll make good decisions, so they’ll know what’s wise, then make leaders responsible. Turn over to them the education of the other two groups, and through education build a society so that the workers and soldiers learn to use their intellect to control their desires and emotions. If you had all that, then for Plato, you would have a good or a just society. Now take that picture, that social political picture, and play it to the individual person, you remember the soul that consists of three separate parts or faculties. Can you guess what they are? Desires, emotions, and intellect---the characteristics associated with the three groups of a society. Can you guess how Plato defines a good or a just person? Well, it’s parallel to how we characterize a good or a just society. The three parts have to be in harmony. In each of us, our desires and emotions often get the better of us and lead us to do foolish things. They are in conflict with the intellect. So to get them to all work together and to co-exist in harmony, every person needs to be shaped in the same way that we’ve shaped the society—through the educational system. Individuals must be educated to use their intellect to control their emotions and desires. That’s harmony in the soul.

Track 19 In a Botany Class

Ok. So w e’ve talked about some different types of root system of plants and I’ve show you some pretty cool slides. But now I want to talk about the extend to the root system---the overall size of the root system: the depth. I want to tell you about one particular experiment. I think you’re going to find that’s pretty amazing. Ok, so there was the scientist.This very … scientist decided the b est place to see a whole root system, to actually see how big the entire system got, the best place would be to grow it, where?

W: Um…, water?

In water. So he took right plants. It was right plants and he started growing them in water. Now, you’ve all hea rd of growing stuff in water before, right?

M: It started commercially, like to grow vegetables and flowers?

Right. They grow all kinds of commercial crops in water. So if you are growing things in water, you can’t add fertilizer. What you need to do to that water, besides putting fertilizer in it, anyone ever actually try to grow plants in water? You must … water through it. … gas through it. I’m sorry, you must … gas through it. So gas, you have to … through. Think about the soil we talked about last week, about growing plants in soil. Think about some of you who have killed your favorite house plants, could you love them too much. If you over water, why do your favorite plants die? Oh, no oxygen. Not enough oxygen for their roots. Which do what 24 hours a day in all seasons.

W: Respiration.

Respire. Respiration, they breathe. So if you just stick to right place and water, it doesn’t make difference how much fertilizer you add. You also need to … gas through water. So they have access to their oxygen. If t hey don’t have that, they are in big trouble. Ok, so, the sky, the scientist, grew a right plant in the water so he could see the root system how big it got, its surface area. I read about this and the book said one thousand kilometers of roots. I kept thinking that has to be a mistake. It just doesn’t make any sense to me that it could be right, but that would be all the books have. No one has ever corrected it. So let me explain it to you about this right plant. If you take a little seed of many grasses a nd remember … is a grass. If you take a tiny little seed and you … it, actually take one of my least favorite grasses that start growing about M ay. What’s my least favorite grass that starts growing about May?

M: Crab grass.

Crab grass. Remember how I showed you in the lab, one little seed starts out producing one little shoot, then at a week so later, you’ve got about six shoots, and three weeks later, you’ve got about fifteen shoots coming out all directions like this. All those little shoots up there? W ell, that’s

… and a little seed started and pretty soon there were several shoots and then more shoots. In the end, that one single seed produced eighty shoots with an average of fifty centimeters of height. From one seed, eighty shoots coming out, average fifty centimeters high. When they looked at the shoot, verses the root surface, they found the shoot surface with all the leaves had total surface air of about five square kilometers. Now, here’s the … When they look ed at the root surface area, you would expect the root and the shoot would be in balance, right? So they should be pretty close in terms of surface area, right?

What’s that? Do somebody say no? Well, you’re absolutely correct. Instead of five square meters, the root system was found to have more than 200 square meters of surface area. Where did all these extra surface air come from? Who did it? Who was responsible for all those extra meters of surface area. What did roots do to increase their surface area?

W: Root hairs.

Root hairs, that’s exactly it. So those root hairs were responsible for an incredible chunk of surface area. They constantly have to be spread out of water, so they can absorb minerals from the fertilizer and of course they need oxygen access as well.

Track 22 A Business Management Class

Ok, l et’s talk about the organization and structure in a company. How a company is typically structured?

W: Functionally

And?

W: By projects.

Right. By function and by projects. Twenty years ago, companies were organized in functional groups where people with certain expertise work together as a unit, the architects in one unit, the finance people in another unit. While nowadays, a lot of companies are organized around projects, like a construction company could be building its office building in one city, and an apartment house somewhere else, and each project has its own architects and engineers. Now, the good thing about project organization is that it’s used to change to adapt to the needs of the project. It’s a small group dedicated to the team not the whole company. Now with that in mind, here is a question for you. Why do we continue to organize ourselves by function even now, when in fact we admit that projects are lifeblood of a lot of organizations, why do some companies maintain a functional organization instead of organizing around projects? Yes?

W: Because if you don’t have that functional structure within your organization, chances are that you have a hard time to meet the goals of the projects.

Why?

W: Why?

Listen; let’s say we’ve gotten four new cars we want to design. Why do we need a functional organization? Why not just organize the company around four projects? These people make car No. 1, these other people make car No.2.

W: Then who’s going to be responsible for work? You know, the way you tell whose…

Well, we’ll appoint a manager, new car No.1 manager, car No.2 manager, there completely responsible. Why should we have a single engineering department that has all four cars passing through it?

W: When you design a car, you need the expertise of all the engineers in the company. Each engineer needs to be in touch with the entire engineering department.

Yeah, but I keep asking. Why? I want to know why. Yes.

M: Well, to limit redundancies, probably won’t be the biggest fa ctor in the organization, so that…

so there is… standard of uniformity and efficiency in an organization.

Ok, and that’s probably the primary reason for functional organization right there is that we want some engineering consistency, we want the same kind of technology used in all four cars. If we disperse those four engineers into four parts of the organization and they work by themselves, there is a lot less chance that the technology gona to be the same from car to car. So instead we maintain the functional organization. That means the engineers work together at one part of the building and their offices are next to each other because we want them to talk to each other. When an engineer works on a project, they bring the expertise of their whole functional group with them. But there is a downside of that, isn’t there? I mean organizing your company into functional groups is not all positive. Where is a leader of those engineers? It’s to their coordinate, right? It’s to that chief engineer. But we really want our one engineer, the engineer that’s working on the car No.1. we want that person’s loyalty to be to the project as well as the head of the engineering group. We really want both, don’t we? We want to maintain functional organization so we can maintain uniformity and technology transfer expertise. We want the cutting edge expertise in every group. But at the same time, we also want the engineer to be totally dedicated to the needs of the project. Ideally, we have a hybrid, a combination of both—functional and project organization. But there is a problem with this kind of hybrid structure. When we have both, functional and project organization, well, what does that violate in terms of basic management principles?

W: Unity of command.

Unity of command. Th at’s exactly right. This is vicious violation of uni ty of command, isn’t it? It says that this engineer working on the project seems to have two bosses. We’ve go t the engineering boss and we’ve got the project manager boss. But the project manager is responsible for the project and is not the official manager of the engineer who works on the project. And we try to maintain peace in the organizations, and sometimes it’s disrupted and we have conflicts, don’t we? The project manager for car one wants a car part to fit in a particular way---for its specific situation and specialized case. Well, the engineering director says No, we get to have standardization. W e get to have all the cars done this way. We can’t make a special mode for that particular part, for that particular car. We’re not g oing to do that, so we got a conflict

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