新托福TPO17阅读原文及译文(一)

新托福TPO17阅读原文(一)：Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia

TPO17-1：Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia

In the fourteenth century, a number of political developments cut Europe's overland trade routes to southern and eastern Asia, with which Europe had had important and highly profitable commercial ties since the twelfth century. This development, coming as it did when the bottom had fallen out of the European economy, provided an impetus to a long-held desire to secure direct relations with the East by establishing a sea trade. Widely reported, if somewhat distrusted, accounts by figures like the famous traveler from Venice, Marco Polo, of the willingness of people in China to trade with Europeans and of the immensity of the wealth to be gained by such contact made the idea irresistible. Possibilities for trade seemed promising, but no hope existed for maintaining the traditional routes over land A new way had to be found.

The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East? Europe's maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent—not of vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's way, new techniques for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create Spices were the most sought-after commodities. Spices not only dramatically improved the taste of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain medicines. But even high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk in order to justify the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the way to India and China.

The principal seagoing ship used throughout the Middle Ages was the galley, a long, low ship fitted with sails but driven primarily by oars. The largest galleys had as many as 50 oarsmen Since they had relatively shallow hulls, they were unstable when

driven by sail or when on rough water: hence they were unsuitable for the voyage to the East. Even if they hugged the African coastline, they had little chance of surviving a crossing of the Indian Ocean. Shortly after 1400, shipbuilders began developing a new type of vessel properly designed to operate in rough, open water: the caravel. It had a wider and deeper hull than the galley and hence could carry more cargo: increased stability made it possible to add multiple masts and sails. In the largest caravels, two main masts held large square sails that provided the bulk of the thrust driving the ship forward, while a smaller forward mast held a triangular-shaped sail, called a lateen sail, which could be moved into a variety of positions to maneuver the ship.

The astrolabe had long been the primary instrument for navigation, having been introduced in the eleventh century. It operated by measuring the height of the Sun and the fixed stars: by calculating the angles created by these points, it determined the degree of latitude at which one stood (The problem of determining longitude, though, was not solved until the eighteenth century.) By the early thirteenth century. Western Europeans had also developed and put into use the magnetic compass, which helped when clouds obliterated both the Sun and the stars. Also beginning in the thirteenth century, there were new maps refined by precise calculations and the reports of sailors that made it possible to trace one's path with reasonable accuracy. Certain institutional and practical norms had become established as well.

A maritime code known as the Consulate of the Sea, which originated in the western Mediterranean region in the fourteenth century, won acceptance by a majority of sea goers as the normative code for maritime conduct; it defined such matters as the authority of a ship's officers, protocols of command, pay structures, the rights of sailors, and the rules of engagement when ships met one another on the sea-lanes. Thus by about 1400 the key elements were in place to enable Europe to begin its seaward adventure.

TPO17-1译文：欧亚地区早期的海洋贸易

自12世纪起，欧洲就已经建立起与南亚和东亚之间高度互利的贸易关系，但14世纪时，政治的发展切断了双方的陆路贸易路线。政治的发展在将欧洲经济带入谷底的同时，也提供了一个新契机，通过建立一个欧洲与东方的海上航路确保两者之间直接的贸易往来，实现长久以来的愿景。对此有诸多报道，有些可能不足为信，威尼斯著名旅行家马可?波罗在其书中就描述了中国人希望和欧洲人通商的意愿，认为通过贸易关系欧洲可以获得巨额财富，他的这些描述让欧洲人难以抗拒。双方贸易有无限商机，前景看好，但传统的陆路贸易已然无望，所以开辟新的贸易路线势在必行。

技术问题最为重要：欧洲人如何到达东方?欧洲的航海传统是在那些易于航行的海域中建立和发展起来的——地中海、波罗的海，以及一条比较狭长的海域，英格兰和欧洲大陆之间的北海，而这些都并非广阔的海洋。因此，开辟新的航线就需要新型的轮船、新的导航技术，以及支持这一庞大计划的新的融资技术。开启海上商业扩张投入的资金规模反映出东西方贸易所能创造出的巨大财富。香料在当时成为最受欢迎的商品，不仅显著提高了欧洲菜肴的口感，同时也被用于制作香水和一些药品。但即使是香料这样的高价商品也不得不大批量运输，以平衡绕行非洲运输至中国和印度所耗费的巨额成本和麻烦。

中世纪应用最为广泛的海船是划桨帆船，船体低矮狭长能够使用帆，但主要还是靠浆操控。最大的划桨帆船有50个划手由于船体相对较浅，靠帆航行或是在汹涌的海面上航行时很难保持稳定。因此它们不适合在去往东方的航线上航行。即使紧贴着非洲海岸线行驶，这种船也很难穿越印度洋。15世纪初，造船专家们开始研制一种能够适用于波涛汹涌的开放海域的新型船只——轻快帆船。这种海船船体比划桨帆船更宽更深，因此可以运送更多的货物，稳定性的提升使

得船体能够增加多个桅杆和船帆。最大型的轻快帆船上，两根主桅杆撑起大块船帆就能够提供足够的推力驱动帆船前进，同时一个小型的前桅杆撑起一块三角形船帆，这种船帆叫做三角帆，它可以移动到不同位置控制帆船。

自11世纪星盘引入欧洲以来，它已经成为航海的重要工具。星盘通过测定太阳和恒星的高度来计算罗盘与星体之间的夹角，并以此确定测量者所处的纬度(而经度测量的难题，直到18世纪才得以解决)。13世纪初，西欧人也发明并开始使用磁罗盘，在云彩遮挡住太阳和星星的情况下帮助他们辨识方向。也是在13世纪初期，经过精密计算，绘制的地图更为精准，加上航海日志，使航行变得可靠而准确。航海制度和实际规范也日趋完善。

14世纪，一部起源于地中海西部地区的《海运法典》为大多数水手们所接受，成为海事行为的规范标准。法典规定了船长的职权范围、命令协议、薪酬结构、水手们的权利，以及航行中与其他船只的交战规则。正是这1400多个重要的因素的具备，欧洲人才能够开启他们的海上冒险之旅。

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托福写作翻译句子练习

托福写作翻译句子练习集团文件发布号：（9816-UATWW-MWUB-WUNN-INNUL-DQQTY-

1. 旅游业不但给政府带来税收而且给很多人提供了就业机会。 2. 赌博不但对健康有害，而且会影响家庭和睦。 3. 打工不但能让学生赚零花钱，而且还能让他们学到人际交往的能力。 4. 现在很多学校的校服不但贵，而且还难看，质量不好。 5. 政府不但要多建一些公路，还要鼓励人们多使用公交车。 6. 老人们既不需要很多的钱，也不需要很大的房子，他们最需要的是子女的关心和照顾。 7. 我喜欢旅游，但是，我既没有钱，也没有时间。 8. 在老人院，老人既能够接受到医疗，又能够找到很多有共同话题，共同兴趣的的伙伴。 9. 缴税既是有有利于国家，也是有利于个人。因为政府的税收主要用于公共服务，这个是每个人都会受益的。 10. 打电脑游戏既浪费时间，又有害视力。

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新托福TPO19阅读原文(一)：The Roman Army's Impact on Britain TPO19-1：The Roman Army's Impact on Britain In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. When not campaigning, soldiers needed to be occupied; otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas. Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. Some of the demand for the services

托福TPO52 三篇阅读翻译!!倒序!!

3.Early Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa 在更新世末期（大约公元前10000年），食品生产的技术可能已经在非洲西部和中部 的热带雨林的边缘地区使用，在那里非洲山药等根茎型植物的普遍使用，使人们认识到自己种植食物的好处。这种原始形式的“蔬菜栽培”（块根植物和树本作物的种植）可 能已经成为了一种经济传统，基于这种传统，夏季降水谷类作物的种植也采用嫁接的办法，这种种植技术已经在撒哈拉沙漠南部边界地区的草原南部被使用。随着撒哈拉 沙漠在公元前5000年之后干涸，游牧民族（牧民）向南沿着主要河道迁移到了西非和苏丹的热带草原地带。 直到公元前3000年，正如埃及文明发源于尼罗河流域一样，这些游牧民族定居在了离南部很远的东非高原地区的中心。东非高原是理想的养牛场所，如今也是像马赛人（肯尼亚和坦桑尼亚的游牧狩猎民族）这样的有名的牧牛民族的家园。直到大约公元前3300 年，第一批牧牛人出现时，高地上居住着狩猎采集者，他们居住在平原附近的山区。和其他地方的情况一样，在非洲，牛是饲养起来很费劲的动物。如果要饲养各种规模 的牛群的话，这些牛至少每24小时就需要喝一次水，而且需要大片的牧场。饲养的秘 诀在于仔细挑选放牧场地，尤其是在季节性降雨会导致全年牧草质量有明显差异的环境中。即使是规模适中的牛群也需要大片的土地和相当大的可移动性。为了获得这样的土地，经常需要牛群移动相当远的距离，甚至是从夏季牧场移动到冬季牧场。同时，放牧人不得不让牲畜在有舌蝇出没的地带吃草。唯一能够保护人类和牲畜，不患上昏 睡病（一种由舌蝇传播的疾病）的办法，就是避免在这些地区定居或者放牧——对非 洲东部和中部地区的牧民来说，这个办法严重地限制了他们的迁移。结果是，小牛群迅速地向南部地区迁移，在那里人们可以放牧。在谷类农业占领最南部的撒哈拉沙漠之前，非洲东部和南部稀树草原地区的一些依靠狩猎和采集生活的人可能已经饲养了牛群和其他家养动物，他们将牲畜作为礼物交换，或者通过劫掠放牧的邻居，来获得这些牲畜。 和主流观点相反：没有所谓的“纯粹”的牧民，即只依靠牧群生存的社会。撒哈拉沙漠地 区为了躲避干旱而向南迁移的牧民，几乎肯定的是他们也在种植高粱、小米和其他热带降雨作物。到公元前1500年，谷类作物已经广泛分布于整个撒哈拉沙漠南部的稀树 草原带。小型农业社区遍布在草原和西非东部森林的边界处，这些小型农业社区都依赖于所谓的轮耕法。这种形式的农业包括清理林地，焚烧清理过的地块上的那些被砍倒的灌木丛，将灰烬混合在土壤中，然后在这些制备好的土地上耕种。几年后，土地耗尽了养分，于是农民们继续前进，开辟新的林地，让原来的荒地休耕。轮耕法，也 被称为“刀耕火种”，高度适用于没有犁的稀树草原地区的农民，因为这种方法能够消耗 最少的能量。

新托福TPO11阅读原文及译文(一)

新托福TPO11阅读原文(一):Ancient Egyptian Sculpture TPO11-1：Ancient Egyptian Sculpture In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it

新托福TPO26阅读原文及译文(一)

新托福TPO26阅读原文(一)：能源与工业革命 TPO26-1：nergy and the Industrial Revolution For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animal and human muscle to provide power. Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine. In the late 1700s James Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. The engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. Since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. The shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. Production of British cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain’s most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. The success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table.

新托福真题TPO27阅读翻译及词汇整理

智课网TOEFL备考资料

新托福真题TPO27阅读翻译及词汇整理 摘要：新托福真题TPO27阅读翻译及词汇整理，下面是小马过河为同学们搜集整理的新托福真题TPO27阅读翻译及词汇整理的相关信息，小马小编整理过来，供同学们参考。 Crafts in the Ancient near East古代近东的手工艺 本文为最新的托福真题TPO第27套阅读第一篇，文章反映了托福“古代社会文明”类型的阅读的特点，阅读中的学科词汇很典型，对我们准备托福的阅读有很重要的参考意义，备战托福的同学不可错过。 学科词汇总结words craft手工艺 urban城市的 civilization 文明 settlement定居点 agriculture农业 pottery实用陶器 textile纺织品

mold模具 carve雕刻 relief浮雕 clay粘土 utilitarian实用的 elaborate精心制作的 refined精制的文章翻译translation 一、人类历史上的第一个城市乌鲁克兴起。 Some of the earliest human civilizations arose in southern Mesopotamia, in what is nowsouthern Iraq, in the fourth millennium B.C.E. In the second half of that millennium, in thesouth around the city of Uruk, there was an enormous escalation in the area occupied bypermanent settlements. A large part of that increase took place in Uruk itself, which became areal urban center surrounded by a set of secondary settlements. While population estimatesare notoriously unreliable, scholars assume that Uruk inhabitants were able to supportthemselves from the agricultural production of the field surrounding the city, which could bere ached with a daily commute. But Uruk’s dominant size in the entire region, far surpassingthat of other settlements, indicates that it was a regional center and a true city. Indeed, it wasthe first city in human history.一些人类最早的文明崛起于公元前四千年的米索达比亚的南部(如今的伊拉克南部)。在公元前四千年的后半期，在乌鲁克城的南部附近被永久定居点占据的区域急剧的增加, 大部分的增长都发生在乌鲁克城内，使其成为了一个真正的城市中心并被一些次要的定居点包围着。虽然众所周知人口估计数是不可靠的，学者们认为乌鲁克居民每天往返城市和城市周边的田地,可以通过周边田地的农业生产来

托福OG TEST 2——green icebergs原文翻译。解析

绿色冰山 冰山就是巨大的冰块，它们的形状各不规则；他们在海面上所呈现出来的部分大概只有总量的12%。冰山是由冰川----从格陵兰岛, 南极洲, 和阿拉斯加的内陆降雪开始积累成为大河中的冰----然后缓慢流入海洋。向前的移动，在进入海洋的时候冰川底部的融化，和波浪与潮汐变化造成了冰块的断裂从而漂浮在海上。 冰山的颜色一般是从蓝到白，虽然有时会因为他们带有砂砾和石块而显得颜色很深或不透明。在不同情况的光和云量下，它们的颜色呈现可能会随之不同，如在早晨和傍晚的阳光下所呈现的耀眼的粉色或金色，但这个颜色变化大致与太阳位于海平面上的低角度有关。不管怎样，总会有到南极洲的旅游者们报告说在Weddell Sea看到了绿冰山，南极洲东部Amery Ice Shelf的附近则更为常见。 对于绿冰山的颜色的一个解释是由于纯冰被接近海平面的太阳所照射而造成的错觉，但是绿冰山在很多不同状态的阳光下都能从白色和蓝色冰山中区分出来。另一个解释就是，它的颜色可能与冰里面所含高浓度的金属化合物有关，比如铜和铁。进来的探险队从南极洲的冰架上带回了一些绿色冰山和冰核的样本----到达深度的垂直圆柱型的冰的样本。对这些冰核和样本的分析给问题提供了一个不一样的解决方法。 215米长的冰架核已经足够用来穿透由压缩的雪组成，并含有气泡的流动冰，并随后穿透在流动冰的底部由冻结的海水形成的清透的没有气泡的冰。这个清透的冰的性质与绿冰山上的冰十分相似。科学家总结出，绿冰的构成是在两层的架冰分开并翻转过来时，暴露出的没有气泡的海水冰。 一个在Amery Ice Shelf西部滞留的绿冰山呈现出了两个明显的层：含有气泡的白蓝色冰，和没有气泡的绿色冰，它们中间是由1米长的带有沉积物的冰分隔开的。海水的侵蚀决定了绿色冰的质地。由于光的分散，裂痕处的颜色是浅绿的；而没有裂痕的地方是深绿色。绿色冰中是没有气泡的，因为它是由冻结的海水所构成，而不是压缩的雪。沿着这个地区冰架的边缘，可以发现，带有绿色色素的单细胞生物非常多，而且海水里面含有它们丰富的分解有机物质。绿冰山虽没有包含很多这些生物体的微粒，但从海水中所积累的分解有机物质还是很多的。不同于盐，分解有机物质并没有在结冰过程中被排除掉。分析表明，分解的有机物质会从太阳光中吸收足够的蓝波段，从而使冰呈现出绿色。 化学证据表明冰的小盘（微小的平面部分）是在水中构成，然后共生并附着在冰架底部形成一个slush （部分融化的雪）。Slush被一种未知的原理压缩成冰，而这种固体，没有气泡的冰形成于可溶解的有机物质多的水。当冰山从冰架上分离并翻转过来时，绿色冰便呈现出来了。 GREEN ICEBERG 1. 排除法，第一句说irregular shape，所以A正确，不选；第一句还说12% above sea surface，所以C说反，选；最后一句说了B和D两个答案，对，不选 2. 以dark or opaque做关键词定位至第一句，because后面是原因，很明显答案是B