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无线传感器网络中英文对照外文翻译文献

无线传感器网络中英文对照外文翻译文献
无线传感器网络中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译文献

(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)

原文:

Distributed localization in wireless sensor networks: a

quantitative comparison

ABSTRACT

This paper studies the problem of determining the node locations in ad-hoc sensor networks. We compare three distributed localization algorithms (Ad-hoc positioning, Robust positioning, and N-hop multi late ration) on a single simulation platform. The algorithms share a common, three-phase structure: (1)

determine node–anchor distances, (2) compute node positions, and (3) optionally refine the positions through an iterative procedure. We present a detailed analysis comparing the various alternatives for each phase, as well as a head-to-head comparison of the complete algorithms. The main conclusion is that no single algorithm performs best; which algorithm is to be preferred depends on the conditions (range errors, connectivity, anchor fraction, etc.). In each case, however, there is significant room for improving accuracy and/or increasing coverage

1 INTRODUCTION

Wireless sensor networks hold the promise of many new applications in the area of monitoring and control. Examples include target tracking, intrusion detection, wildlife habitat monitoring, climate control, and disaster management. The underlying technology that drives the emergence of sensor applications is the rapid development in the integration of digital circuitry, which will bring us small, cheap, autonomous sensor nodes in the near future.

New technology offers new opportunities, but it also introduces new problems. This is particularly true for sensor networks where the capabilities of individual nodes are very limited. Hence, collaboration between nodes is required, but energy conservation is a major concern, which implies that communication should be minimized. These conflicting objectives require unorthodox solutions for many situations.

A recent survey by Akyildiz et al. discusses a long list of open research issues that must be addressed before sensor networks can become widely deployed. The problems range from the physical layer (low-power sensing, processing, and communication hardware) all the way up to the application layer (query and data dissemination protocols). In this paper we address the issue of localization in ad-hoc sensor networks. That is, we want to determine the location of individual sensor nodes without relying on external infrastructure (base stations, satellites, etc.).

The localization problem has received considerable attention in the past, as many applications need to know where objects or persons are, and hence various location services have been created. Undoubtedly, the Global Positioning System (GPS) is the most well-known location service in use today. The approach taken by GPS, however, is unsuitable for low-cost, ad-hoc sensor networks since GPS is based on extensive infrastructure (i.e., satellites). Likewise solutions developed in the area of robotic and ubiquitous computing are generally not applicable for sensor networks as they require too much processing power and energy.

Recently a number of localization systems have been proposed specifically for sensor networks. We are interested in truly distributed algorithms that can be employed on large-scale ad-hoc sensor networks (100+ nodes). Such algorithms should be:

?self-organizing (i.e., do not depend on global infrastructure),

?robust (i.e., be tolerant to node failures and range errors),

?energy efficient (i.e., require little computation and, especially, communication).

These requirements immediately rule out some of the proposed localization algorithms for sensor networks. We carried out a thorough sensitivity analysis on three algorithms that do meet the above requirements to determine how well they perform under various conditions. In particular, we studied the impact of the following parameters: range errors, connectivity (density), and anchor fraction. These algorithms differ in their position accuracy, network coverage, induced network traffic, and processor load. Given the (slightly) different design objectives for the three algorithms, it is no surprise that each algorithm outperforms the others under a specific set of conditions. Under each condition, however, even the best algorithm leaves much room for improving accuracy and/or increasing coverage.

The main contributions of our work described in this paper are:

?we identify a common, three-phase, structure in the distributed localization

algorithms.

?we identify a generic optimization applicable to all algorithms.

?we provide a detailed comparison on a single (simulation) platf orm.

?we show that there is no algorithm that performs best, and that there exists room for improvement in most cases.

Section 2 discusses the selection, generic structure, and operation of three distributed localization algorithms for large-scale ad-hoc sensor networks. These algorithms are compared on a simulation platform, which is described in Section 3. Section 4 presents intermediate results for the individual phases, while Section 5 provides a detailed overall comparison and an in-depth sensitivity analysis. Finally, we give conclusions in Section 6.

2 LOCALIZATION ALGORITHMS

Before discussing distributed localization in detail, we first outline the context in which these algorithms have to operate. A first consideration is that the requirement for sensor networks to be self-organizing implies that there is no fine control over the placement of the sensor nodes when the network is installed (e.g., when nodes are dropped from an airplane). Consequently, we assume that nodes are randomly distributed across the environment. For simplicity and ease of presentation we limit the environment to 2 dimensions, but all algorithms are capable of operating in 3D. Fig. 1shows an example network with 25 nodes; pairs of nodes that can communicate directly are connected by an edge. The connectivity of the nodes in the network (i.e., the average number of neighbors) is an important parameter that has a strong impact on the accuracy of most localization algorithms (see Sections 4 and 5). It can be set initially by selecting a specific node density, and in some cases it can be set dynamically by adjusting the transmit power of the RF radio in each node.

In some application scenarios, nodes may be mobile. In this paper, however, we focus on static networks, where nodes do not move, since this is already a challenging condition for distributed localization. We assume that some anchor

nodes have a priori knowledge of their own position with respect to some global coordinate system. Note that anchor nodes have the same capabilities (processing, communication, energy consumption, etc.) as all other sensor nodes with unknown positions; we do not consider approaches based on an external infrastructure with specialized beacon nodes (access points) as used in, for example, the GPS-less location system and the Cricket location system. Ideally the fraction of anchor nodes should be as low as possible to minimize the installation costs, and our simulation results show that, fortunately, most algorithms are rather insensitive to the number of anchors in the network.

The final element that defines the context of distributed localization is the capability to measure the distance between directly connected nodes in the network. From a cost perspective it is attractive to use the RF radio for measuring the range between nodes, for example, by observing the signal strength. Experience has shown, however, that this approach yields poor distance estimates. Much better results are obtained by time-of- flight measurements, particularly when acoustic and RF signals are combined; accuracies of a few percent of the transmission range are reported. Our simulation results provide insight into the effect of the accuracy of the distance measurements on the localization algorithms.

It is important to realize that the main three context parameters (connectivity, anchor fraction, and range errors) are dependent. Poor range measurements can be compensated for by using many anchors and/or a high connectivity. This paper provides insight in the complex relation between connectivity, anchor fraction, and range errors for a number of distributed localization algorithms.

2.1 GENERIC APPROACH

From the known localization algorithms specifically proposed for sensor networks, we selected the three approaches that meet the basic requirements for self-organization, robustness, and energy-efficiency:

? Ad-hoc positioning by Niculescu and Nath ,

? N-hop multilateration by Savvides et al, and

? Robust positioning by Savarese et al.

The other approaches often include a central processing element, rely on an external infrastructure, or induce too much communication. The three selected algorithms are fully distributed and use local broadcast for communication with immediate neighbors. This last feature allows them to be executed before any multi hop routing is in place, hence, they can support efficient location-based routing schemes like GAF.

Although the three algorithms were developed independently, we found that they share a common structure. We were able to identify the following generic, three-phase approach 1 for

determining the individual node positions:

1. Determine the distances between unknowns and anchor nodes.

2. Derive for each node a position from its anchor distances.

3. Refine the node positions using information about the range (distance) to, and positions of neighboring nodes.

The original descriptions of the algorithms present the first two phases as a single entity, but we found that separating them provides two advantages. First, we obtain a better understanding of the combined behavior by studying intermediate results. Second, it becomes possible to mix-and-match alternatives for both phases to tailor the localization algorithm to the external conditions. The refinement phase is optional and may be included to obtain more accurate locations.

In the remainder of this section we will describe the three phases (distance, position, and refinement) in detail. For each phase we will enumerate the alternatives as found in the original descriptions. Table 1 gives the breakdown into phases of the three approaches. When applicable we also discuss (minor) adjustments to (parts of) the individual algorithms that were needed to ensure

compatibility with the alternatives. During our simulations we observed that we occasionally operated (parts of) the algorithms outside their intended scenarios, which deteriorated their performance. Often, small improvements brought their performance back in line with the alternatives.

2.2 PHASE: DISTENCE TO ANCHORS

In this phase, nodes share information to collectively determine the distances between individual nodes and the anchors, so that an (initial) position can be calculated in Phase 2. None of the Phase 1 alternatives engages in complicated calculations, so this phase is communication bounded. Although the three distributed localization algorithms each use a different approach, they share a common communication pattern: information is flooded into the network, starting at the anchor nodes. A network-wide flood by some anchor A is expensive since each node must forward as information to its (potentially) unaware neighbors. This implies a scaling problem: flooding information from all anchors to all nodes will become much too expensive for large networks, even with low anchor fractions. Fortunately a good position can be derived in Phase 2 with knowledge (position and distance) from a limited number of anchors. Therefore nodes can simply stop forwarding information when enough anchors have been ??located‘‘. This simple optimization presented i n the Robust positioning approach proved to be highly effective in controlling the amount of communication (see Section 5.3). We modified the other two approaches to include a flood limit as well.

2.2.1 SUM-DIST

The simple solution for determining the distance to the anchors is simply adding the ranges encountered at each hop during the network flood. This is the approach taken by the N-hop multi late ration approach, but it remained nameless in the original description; we name it Sum-dist in this paper. Sum-dist starts at the anchors which send a message including their identity, position, and a path length set to 0. Each receiving node adds the measured range to the path

length and forwards (broadcasts) the message if the flood limit allows it to do so. Another constraint is that when the node has received information about the particular anchor before, it is only allowed to forward the message if the current path length is less than the previous one. The end result is that each node will have stored the position and minimum path length to at least flood limit anchors.

2.2.2 DV-HOP

A drawback of Sum-dist is that range errors accumulate when distance information is propagated over multiple hops. This cumulative error becomes significant for large networks with few anchors (long paths) and/or poor ranging hardware. A robust alternative is to use topological information by counting the number of hops instead of summing the (erroneous) ranges. This approach was named DV-hop by Niculescu and Nath, and Hop-TERRAIN by Savarese et al. Since the results of DV-hop were published first we will use this name.

DV-hop essentially consists of two flood waves. After the first wave, which is similar to Sum-dist, nodes have obtained the position and minimum hop count to at least flood limit anchors. The second calibration wave is needed to convert hop counts into distances such that Phase 2 can compute a position. This conversion consists of multiplying the hop count with an average hop distance. Whenever an anchor a1 infers the position of another anchor a2 during the first wave, it computes the distance between them, and divides that by the number of hops to derive the average hop distance between a1 and a2. When calibrating, an anchor takes all remote anchors into account that it is aware of. Nodes forward (broadcast) calibration messages only from the first anchor that calibrates them, which reduces the total number of messages in the network.

2.2.3 EUCLIDEAN

A drawback of DV-hop is that it fails for highly irregular network topologies, where the variance in actual hop distances is very large. Niculescu and Nath have proposed another method, named Euclidean, which is based on the local geometry of the nodes around an anchor. Again anchors initiate a flood,

but forwarding the distance is more complicated than in the previous cases. When a node has received messages from two neighbors that know their distance to the anchor, and to each other, it can calculate the distance to the anchor. Fig. 2 shows a node (_Self_) that has two neighbors: n1 and n2 with distance estimates to an anchor. Together with the known ranges c, d, and e, Euclidean arrives at two possible values (r1 and r2) for the distance of the node to the anchor. Niculescu describes two methods to decide on which, if any, distance to use. The neighbor vote method can be applied if there is a third neighbor (n3) that has a distance estimate to the anchor and that is connected to either n1 or n2. Replacing n2 (or n1) by n3 will again yield a pair of distance estimates. The correct distance is part of both pairs, and is selected by a simple voting. Of course, more neighbors can be included to make the selection more accurate.

The second selection method is called common neighbor and can be applied if node n3 is connected to both n1 and n2. Basic geometric reasoning leads to the conclusion that the anchor and n3 are on the same or opposite side of the mirroring line n1–n2, and similarly whether or not self and n3 are on the same side. From this it follows whether or not self and the anchor lay on the same side.

To handle the uncertainty introduced by range errors Niculescu implements a safety mechanism that rejects ill-formed (flat) triangles, which can easily derail the selection process by ?neighbor vote‘ and ?common neighbor‘. This check verifies that the sum of the two smallest sides exceeds the largest side multiplied by a threshold, which is set to two times the range variance. For example, the triangle Self-n1–n2 in Fig. 2 is accepted when c + d > (1 + 2RangeVar) * e. Note that the safety check becomes as strict as the range variance increases. This leads to a lower coverage, defined as the percentage of non-anchor nodes for which a position was determined

2.3 PHASE: NODE POSITION

In the second phase nodes determine their position based on the distance estimates to a number of anchors provided by one of the three Phase 1

alternatives (Sum-dist, DV-hop, or Euclidean).The Ad-hoc positioning and Robust positioning approaches use late ration for this purpose. N-hop multi late ration, on the other hand, uses a much simpler method, which we named Min–max. In both cases the determination of the node positions does not involve additional communication.

2.3.1 LATERATION

The most common method for deriving a position is late ration, which is a form of triangulation. From the estimated distances and known positions of the anchors we derive the following system of equations:

The unknown position is denoted by. The system can be lined by subtracting the last equation from the first n _ 1 equations

Reordering the terms gives a proper system of linear equations in the form Ax=b, where

The system is solved using a standard least-squares approach. In exceptional cases the matrix inverse cannot be computed and late ration fails. In the majority of the cases, however, we succeed in computing a location estimate. We run an additional sanity check by computing the residue between the given distances and the distances to the location estimate

A large residue signals an inconsistent set of equations; we reject the location ^x when the length of the residue exceeds the radio range.

2.3.2 MIN-MAX

Late ration is quite expensive in the number of floating point operations that is required. A much simpler method is presented by Savvides et al. as part of the N-hop multi late ration approach. The main idea is to construct a bounding box for each anchor using its position and distance estimate, and then to determine the intersection of these boxes. The position of the node is set to the center of the intersection box. Fig. 3 illustrates the Min–max method for a node with distance estimates to three anchors. Note that the estimated position by Min–max is close to the true position computed through late ration (i.e., the intersection of the

无线传感器网络结课论文

无线传感器网络结课论文 学号: 姓名: 学院:

目录 一.无线传感器网时间同步技术综述 (1) <一>引言 (1) <二>同步技术研究现状 (1) <三>时间同步算法 (2) 3.1泛洪时间同步协议 (2) 3.2 RBS 协议 (2) 3.3LTS协议 (3) <四>小结 (3) 二.基于无线传感器网络的环境监测系统 (3) <一>网络系统简介 (3) <二>网络系统结构 (3) 2.1总体结构 (3) 2.2传感器节点结构 (4) 2.3汇聚节点结构 (5) <三>应用无线传感器网络的意义 (6) 三.学习心得 (7) 四. 参考文献 (8)

一.无线传感器网时间同步技术综述 <一>引言 无线传感器网络( Wireless Sensors Network,WSN) 是一种在一定区域内投放大量的传感器节点,通过无线通信形成的一个单跳或多跳的自组织式的网络系统,它通常采集和处理监测区域中被感知目标的信息,并通过网络发送给主机端以提高人类对物理环境的远端监视和控制能力。无线传感网络技术在交通、国防、医学、农业等方面有着重要的运用。无线传感器网络由大量的节点构成,通常包括传感器节点、汇聚节点和任务管理节点。大量体积小、精度高的传感器节点随机部署在监测区域内,通过自组织的方式构成网络。传感器节点将监测到的数据传输给其它传感器节点,经过多跳后路由到汇聚节点,最后通过互联网或卫星到达任务管理节点。用户则通过任务管理节点发布监测任务以及收集监测数据,对无线传感器网络进行管理。 无线传感器网络是许多领域里的关键技术之一,而时间同步则是无线传感器网络中的关键技术之一。简而言之,在检测与监视某对象的过程中,目标定位和追踪、协同数据处理、能量管理等都对物理时间的精确度都有着敏感的需求。因此,无线传感器网络的应用通常需要一个适应性比较好的时间同步服务,以保证数据的一致性和协调性。此外,数据融合、通信信道复用等也都需要时间同步的保障。所以,如何根据无线传感器网络的特点对物理时间进行同步是一个重要的问题。 目前,学术界和业界对无线传感器网络的时间同步技术进行了一定的研究,本章节描述了无线传感器网络时间同步技术的研究现状,对3种不同时间同步机制的经典算法进行分析和比较。 <二>同步技术研究现状 时间同步技术相对于计算机网络的相关技术而言尚为年轻,自从2002年学术会议Hot Nets上首次提出了时间同步这一研究课题后,到目前为止,无线传感器网络的时间同步技术也取得了一定进展,同时也开发出了多种极其有价值时间同步的算法。 目前,对于单跳网络的同步研究已趋于成熟,但由于同步误差的累积,导致单跳网络的同步技术难以扩展到多跳网络,使得多跳网络的同步技术研究较为薄弱。若再考虑节点的移动性,则会极大增加同步技术的研究难度。因此,无线传感器网络的时间同步技术还有很大的研究空间。

基于无线传感器网络的环境监测系统设计与实现

南京航空航天大学 硕士学位论文 基于无线传感器网络的环境监测系统设计与实现 姓名:耿长剑 申请学位级别:硕士 专业:电路与系统 指导教师:王成华 20090101

南京航空航天大学硕士学位论文 摘要 无线传感器网络(Wireless Sensor Network,WSN)是一种集成了计算机技术、通信技术、传感器技术的新型智能监控网络,已成为当前无线通信领域研究的热点。 随着生活水平的提高,环境问题开始得到人们的重视。传统的环境监测系统由于传感器成本高,部署比较困难,并且维护成本高,因此很难应用。本文以环境温度和湿度监控为应用背景,实现了一种基于无线传感器网络的监测系统。 本系统将传感器节点部署在监测区域内,通过自组网的方式构成传感器网络,每个节点采集的数据经过多跳的方式路由到汇聚节点,汇聚节点将数据经过初步处理后存储到数据中心,远程用户可以通过网络访问采集的数据。基于CC2430无线单片机设计了无线传感器网络传感器节点,主要完成了温湿度传感器SHT10的软硬件设计和部分无线通讯程序的设计。以PXA270为处理器的汇聚节点,完成了嵌入式Linux系统的构建,将Linux2.6内核剪裁移植到平台上,并且实现了JFFS2根文件系统。为了方便调试和数据的传输,还开发了网络设备驱动程序。 测试表明,各个节点能够正确的采集温度和湿度信息,并且通信良好,信号稳定。本系统易于部署,降低了开发和维护成本,并且可以通过无线通信方式获取数据或进行远程控制,使用和维护方便。 关键词:无线传感器网络,环境监测,温湿度传感器,嵌入式Linux,设备驱动

Abstract Wireless Sensor Network, a new intelligent control and monitoring network combining sensor technology with computer and communication technology, has become a hot spot in the field of wireless communication. With the improvement of living standards, people pay more attention to environmental issues. Because of the high maintenance cost and complexity of dispose, traditional environmental monitoring system is restricted in several applications. In order to surveil the temperature and humidity of the environment, a new surveillance system based on WSN is implemented in this thesis. Sensor nodes are placed in the surveillance area casually and they construct ad hoc network automatieally. Sensor nodes send the collection data to the sink node via multi-hop routing, which is determined by a specific routing protocol. Then sink node reveives data and sends it to the remoted database server, remote users can access data through Internet. The wireless sensor network node is designed based on a wireless mcu CC2430, in which we mainly design the temperature and humidity sensors’ hardware and software as well as part of the wireless communications program. Sink node's processors is PXA270, in which we construct the sink node embedded Linux System. Port the Linux2.6 core to the platform, then implement the JFFS2 root file system. In order to facilitate debugging and data transmission, the thesis also develops the network device driver. Testing showed that each node can collect the right temperature and humidity information, and the communication is stable and good. The system is easy to deploy so the development and maintenance costs is reduced, it can be obtained data through wireless communication. It's easy to use and maintain. Key Words: Wireless Sensor Network, Environment Monitoring, Temperature and Humidity Sensor, Embedded Linux, Device Drivers

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