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2010年自学考试《外国法制史》串讲笔记2

2010年自学考试《外国法制史》串讲笔记2
2010年自学考试《外国法制史》串讲笔记2

3、债权制度

(1)债的概念:《查士丁尼法典》给债下的定义是:债是依国法得使他人为一定给付的法锁。法锁指特定双方间用法律来连结和约束的意思。其特征:

A、债是特定的双方当事人的连锁关系,其中债权人享有请求债务人为一定行为或不为一定行为的权利,债务人负有应当履行的义务。

B、债的标的是给付。债权人对标的物无权直接行使权利,只能向债务人行使请求给付的权利。

C、债受法律保护。债权人的请求必须以法律的规定为依据,同样,债务人也应遵照法律的规定担负给付的义务。

债权与物权不同:物权有永久性,债权是暂时的;物权享有人可直接对物实施权力,无需依赖他人;债权则需依赖他人的行为,是间接的、有条件的;物权有追及权和优先权,而债权则没有这两种权利。

(2)债的发生原因:古典时代,发生债的原因分两类:一类是因当事人签订契约,另一类是由于不法行为(叫做私犯),其余列入“其他复杂原因”,并分为两项,即准契约和准私犯。准契约是指当事人虽不缔结契约,而与缔约发生同类的债务关系,跟契约具有同一效果;准私犯是指类似私犯而在法定各种私犯之外的侵权行为。

罗马早期只流行少数契约,如买卖、借贷等。订立契约具有严格形式,必须讲固定的语言,配合一定的动作,否则无效,不产生权利义务,这种契约叫要式契约。共和国后期,契约形式主义逐渐丧失,出现各式契约,分为四大类,即要物、口头、文书和合意契约。

要物契约指转移标的物才能成立的契约,如果没有标的物的交付,即使当事人意思表示已经一致,也不发生效力。这类契约,主要有借贷和寄托。

口头契约以一定的语言订立,债权人问债务人答,上古时期流行。

文书契约是登载于帐簿而发生效力的契约,只在共和国时期流行一个阶段。

合意契约流行最广,签订手续灵活简便,既不需用文书也不要求当事人一定在场,只要双方“意思一致”,彼此能以“善良”、“公平”原则履行即可,此类契约如买卖、租赁、合伙、委任等。

准契约与上述契约完全不同,这是一类各种式样混杂在一起的债,没有订立契约是他们共同特征,但与订立契约具有同样效果。主要包括无因管理、监护、共有、遗赠等。

除契约、准契约外,私犯和准私犯也是债的发生根据。私犯是属于违法加害于他人人身或财产的行为,违犯者负损害赔偿的责任。《法学阶梯》将其分为四种,即窃盗、强盗、对物私犯和对人私犯。

窃盗是指窃取他人物件为己有,或者窃用、窃占他人财物的行为。

强盗指有意贪图非法利益,以****胁迫的方法,非法携取他人所有物的行为。

对物私犯指非法损害或破坏他人的财产,如杀害他人的奴隶、牲畜以及毁损其他物件等,加害者要赔偿受害者的损失。

对人私犯指加害他人身体或用语言、文字侮辱他人名誉的行为。《十二表法》规定了各种对人私犯的赔偿损失的数额,双方不能达成协议的,被害者可对加害者实行复仇。后允许被害人自行确定赔偿数额。帝国时期,由裁判官根据不同情况决定数额。

准私犯是类似私犯而在法定私犯以外的侵权行为。《法学阶梯》分下列几种:法官渎职;自屋内向公共道路投物;阳台、屋檐堆置或悬挂物品足以危及行人安全;船舶、旅店、马厩服务员对旅客的损害等。

帝国时期,许多私犯被当作公犯,由国家机关加重惩处。

三、诉讼法制度:

罗马法学家把法分为公法与私法的同时,也将诉讼分为公诉和私诉。公诉是对损害国家利益案件的审查;私诉是根据个人的申诉,对个人案件的审查。最古老原始的诉讼形式是法定诉讼,在共和国初期盛行。诉讼时,双方当事人必须亲自到场,原则上不得委托人代理。诉讼活动应严格按照法律规定的程序进行,陈述用一定的术语,配合固定的动作,并要携带

争讼物到庭。案件要经过法律审理和事实审理两个阶段。随着经济的发展,出现了程式诉讼,在帝国初期比较流行。

对要求迅速处理的案件,最高裁判官发布强制性命令采取特殊保护的方法,而不按一般程序来审理,这种诉讼程序称特别诉讼。它在帝国后期成为唯一的诉讼制度。特征是自始至终由一个官吏担任,侦察时允许告密,为了取证,对自由人也可逼供和拷打,审判失去公开性质只准少数人参加;法官强制当事人出庭和执行判决,不再交民选法官复审。

第三节罗马法的影响

罗马法适应罗马奴隶制社会相当发达的私有制和商品经济的要求,终于形成发达和完备的法律形式和完整的法律体系。它对私有制和商品经济的一切重要关系,都有非常详细而明确的规定。因此,它全面维护了奴隶社会的私有制,促进了商品经济关系广泛的发展;同时还维护了统治阶级的政治统治,保证了罗马国家机关的权力得以实现。

罗马私法的形成和发展有自己的特点。它主要是凭借法学家的研究工作和着述以及罗马长官在解决私人间纠纷方面的司法活动来对各种财产关系进行调整。这样使得罗马法在不损坏原有的形势下,能够适应社会生活条件和经济的发展而不断变化,基本上满足了客观需求。

罗马法内容和立法技术更为详尽、高超和发达,它具有法理精深、内容丰富、体系完整、措词确切、严谨、简明和结论清晰、语言精辟凝练等特点。它提出的自由民在私法范围内形式上平等、契约以当事人同意为生效的主要条件和财产无限制私有等重要原则,对欧洲许多资本主义法律特别是民法的发展都有很大的影响。

罗马法不仅在征服地区强行推广,而且众多国家统治者出于需要也积极采用罗马法。西欧封建初期,尽管日耳曼法占统治地位,但罗马人中间和残存下来的城市法中仍保留了罗马法。一些“蛮族”国家的首脑,也编纂简明罗马法典在本国执行。整个中世纪占重要地位的教会法也不乏罗马法的影响。中期后,西欧许多国家掀起罗马法复兴运动,有的将罗马私法稍加修改,变成现行法来使用;有的吸取罗马法一些基本原则和概念、术语,借以推动本国法律的发展。当然,采用程度各不相同,意大利、西班牙、法兰西和日耳曼等国规模和程度大些,英国及南斯拉夫规模和程度小些。

进入资本主义社会后,罗马法影响超出欧洲,形成具有世界影响的罗马日耳曼法系。如1804年法国民法典是以《法学阶梯》为蓝本,继承罗马法,成为“典型资产阶级社会的法典”; 1900年德国民法典渊源于罗马法,更多地接受《学说汇纂》影响,有“现代罗马法”“现代学

说汇纂”之称。英国普通法中契约原则、遗嘱制度和信托规则均来源于罗马法。其他如比利时、芬兰、波兰、瑞士、日本、旧中国等,也都受罗马法影响。

综上所述,罗马法不仅作用影响于罗马奴隶制社会,也促进了新的资本主义经济的形成,推动着资本主义社会商品和货币关系的发展,为后世调整和保障商品生产以及私有制为基础的社会经济关系提供了借鉴的现成形式。作为资本主义世界两大法律传统渊源之一的罗马法,对现代资产阶级各国的法律制度,仍有不同程度的影响。

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