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Talmy认知语义学(沈家煊)

Talmy认知语义学(沈家煊)
Talmy认知语义学(沈家煊)

L. Talmy 2000 Toward a Cognitive Semantics, 2 vols, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.

第一卷 Concept Structuring Systems 概念结构系统

第一部分语言中概念结构的基础

第一章语法与认知的关系

一句话在听者头脑中引发一个“认知表征”(cognitive representation),即CR,语言的两个分系统——语法和词汇——分别界定CR中的不同部分:语法界定结构(structure),词汇界定内容(content)。

语法成分界定的各种概念是一个极其有限的集合,是一个成分有限的系统,但它们构成的是语言的“基本概念结构系统”(Fundamental conceptual structuring system),即为语言这一认知系统提供一些有高度选择性的概念结构“图式”或“框架”(Schematic framework)。语法因此决定语言这一认知系统的概念结构。

语言这一认知系统的概念结构与其他认知系统(如视觉、推理)的概念系统有对应关系,这种对应关系也是我们要研究的对象。

语法与词汇的定义与意义无关,是按形式标准定义

开放类(词汇):实词和复合词组

封闭类(语法):显性的和具体的,包括黏着的(-ed)和自由的(even);隐性的和抽象的,包括“名、动、主、宾、词序、构式”。

由语法界定的概念——语法概念——的性质(区别于词汇概念)

1.语义上受限制

范畴有限:有数范畴,没有色范畴。

范畴的成分有限:有单数、复数、双数、少量数,没有奇数偶数,dozen数,没有no, some, many, most, all等自由形式表达的数范畴。

2.语法成分的所指具有指称的拓扑性(topological reference),非欧几里德性。

拓扑性:图式保持不变(橡皮泥变形后画在上面的几何图形保持不变)

This speck is smaller than that speck.

This planet is smaller than that planet.

This和 that,比较句表达的大小远近关系,都与对象的绝对大小和距离的远近无关。

图式:

。。

The ant crawled across my palm.

The bus drove across the country.

across界定的概念图式:

I swam across the lake.

与lake的大小形状无关(shape neutral, magnitude neutral)

一张纸团成一团后仍然叫它“一张纸”,这是量词的拓扑性。

大部分语法成分所指的概念具有拓扑性或准拓扑性:点、线、在…处、在…里、域、边、分割、单数、复数、同、异、邻接、对应、分布方式

少量的语法成分不具有拓扑性:材料、空间、时间、运动、介质、当前说及的实体

语言形式的拓扑学与数学的拓扑学有同有异:

同 in the thimble/volcano (大小neutral)

in the well/trench (形状neutral)

异语言的in更抽象: closure neutral: in the bowl/ball

discontinuity neutral: in the birdcage/ball 更具体:across 不能用于

长和宽比例不对,分割的两部分大小严重不对称。

说话人

这个与那个之间的距离跟两个事物与说话人之间的距离不成比例,这种情形下只能说The closer glass is water and the further glass is wine,不能说This glass is water and that glass is wine.

过去时标记可以指一分钟前,也可以指一万年前。

实词的所指也可以具有拓扑性(previous表示过去),但是虚词的所指一定具有拓扑性。虚词只有concept-structuring 的功能,实词除这个功能外还有content fill-in的功能。 Bulk neutral: The caterpillar crawled up along the filament/the flagpole/the redwood tree.

Token neutral: 指型不指例。有专用名词,但没有专用介词,如

*Jesus walked Astation the hill named Calvary.(介词Astation指专门的路径)

(动词和形容词也是token neutral)

substance neutral: a bubble passed through the water/milk/mercury.

当发生语义矛盾时,实词向虚词让步,而不是相反。(概念框架不轻易变动)

She is somewhat pregnant.

语义冲突:虚词somewhat表程度,实词pregnant不表程度。解决冲突的办法是实词让步,由无程度的“怀孕”义转向有程度义的“妊娠期”。实词的这种变化叫“(语义)应变”(shift)。

3.总藏量有限,具有普世性。

可能是天生的,可能是从其他认知系统复制(copy)过来的。普世性有程度之别。

语法范畴系统

语法范畴又叫图式范畴(schematic categories),它们构成一些图式系统(Schematic systems)。大致有五种图式系统有待说明:

1.Configuratioanal structure 时空型式

2.Perspective 视角

3.Distribution of attention 注意力的分布

4.Force dynamics 动力作用

5.Cognitive state 认知状态

图式范畴和图式系统的的一些基本组织原则:

1.域与域之间的对应和投射(如空间域与时间域:他在厨房→他在做饭)

2.一个范畴内的概念A由于与实词类发生交互作用会转变为概念B(如在“域”domain这个范畴内,空间概念变为时间概念),也能使交互作用的实词的词义发生“语义应变”或调适(如somewant 使pregnant的词义做相应变化)。

3.叠套(nesting)

图式范畴之一:domain域(空间、时间等)

空间域—事物:个体 objects (离散)

集合 mass (连续)

时间域—行动:动作 acts (离散)盛碗里

活动 activity (连续)盛鱼

域与状态相关:

状态:静态(stablicity)—空间域

动态(progression)—时间域

在“域”这个范畴内,由空间转变为时间,这种认知操作(cognitive operation)叫reification或reconceptualization“概念转化”。如由一个动作转化为一个个体(两者都是有界/离散的):

John called me. → John gave me a call.

She bathed the child. → She gave the child a bath.

The child was bathed by her. → The child got a bath from her.

The child bathed (himself). → The child had/took a bath.

洗澡,洗个澡,来个热水澡

由一个活动转化为一个集合(两者都是无界/连续的):

John helped me. → John gave me some help.

I was helped by John. → I got some help from John.

帮助,给一些帮助,得到一些帮助

由事物转化为行动:

Hail(stones) came in through the window. →It hailed in through the window 天雨

Ice is forming over the windshield. →It is icing up over the windshield. 冰一冰

I removed the pit from the cherry. → I pitted the cherry. 坑人

He has blood coming from his nose. → He is bleeding from his nose. 流水/水流

She ejected spit into the cuspidor. → She spat into the cuspidor.

Crowds of people went to the fair. → People thronged to the fair.

从类型学上看,有的语言是事物为主的语言(object-dominant),有的语言是行动为主的

语言(action-dominant)。英语属于前者,名词变动词困难,动词变名词容易。北加州Atsugewi语言属于后者,与动作相关的事物概念都由动词的前缀后缀来表达,有许多基本名词是由动词名化而来的,如名词cnehwu“太阳/月亮”是动词词根-hw u-“在天空中划出一道弧”名化而来。(前一类语言多,后一类语言少。动变名、名变动认知上的不对称。)

除了空间和时间两个域,还有其他域,如认同域(identificational space)或心理空间域,区分与说话人的心理距离的远近:

一个买有机食品的顾客来到新社区后向邻里打听:

Where can you buy organic food around here?

Where do they sell organic food around here?

you/they 泛指人,与说话人认同用you,不认同用they

一个卖有机食品的商人向同行打听:

Where can you sell organic food around here?

Where do they buy organic food around here?

This/that区分物理空间的远近,you/they区分心理空间的远近。

时空型式 Configurational Structure,图式系统之一

这个图式系统包括7个图式范畴

1.单复数 Plexity

事物动作

单数 A bird flew in. He sighed (once). 叹了一口气

复数 Birds flew in. He kept sighing. 连连叹气

复数化的结果是无界化:事物由有界变为无界,动作也由有界变为无界。变为有界复数的一定是有标记形式:a flock of birds, a grove of trees, a pate of sighs

有的词项有内在的复数性,如furniture, timber, breathe,它们的单数化也是有标记的:furniture→a piece of furniture

she breathed with full concentration→she took a breath/breathed in with full concentration.(breathe in “吸入”有界)

2.有无界 State of boundedness

事物动作

无界 *we flew over water in one hour. *We slept in eight hours.

有界 we flew over a sea in one hour. She dressed in eight hours.

有界化:water→a body of water

sleep→ sleep for an hour

无界化:shrub→shrubbery

panel→paneling

a tear→tears

cat→there is cat all over the driveway.

mile→there are miles of pencil in that stationary store.

动作有界,受动作支配的事物相应地也按有界理解;动作无界,受动作支配的事物相应地也按无界理解。

I ate popcorn for 10 minutes.

动作eat popcorn无界,事物popcorn也理解为无界;

I walked through the tunnel in 10 minutes.

动作walked through the tunnel 有界,事物the tunnel也理解为有界。

I walked along the shore for 10 minutes.

动作walked along the shore 和事物the shore都为无界。

界限重合原则Boundary Coincidence

I walked along the shore for 10 minutes.

I walked through the tunnel for 10minutes.

3.内部的连续和离散 State of Dividedness

water 和sleep内部连续

timber 和breathe内部离散(尽管外部看是无界的)

离散化:water→particles of water filled the vessel.

连续化:leaves→a mass of leaves

walk 内部连续性强

keep stepping 内部离散性强

强弱是一个斜坡:离散性由强到弱

This tree and that tree and that tree are mature.

Those tress are mature.

That timber is mature.

The shaman stepped once, stepped again, and stepped once more across the coals.

The shaman continued stepping across the coals.

The shaman walked across the coals.

有无界的对立比离散连续的对立重要,语法形式主要体现有无界的对立。

上述四域domain, plexity, boundedness, dividedness都与“量”有关,统称“量性”(quantity’s disposition)

小结:图(59页)

复数

离散连续

无界 timber/breathe water/sleep

有界 family/to molt sea/to empty

(the bird molted.) (the tank emptied.)

单数 tree/to sigh

4. 维度degree of extension

点:斑点

段(有界):梯子

线(无界):河流

she climbed up the fire ladder in five minutes. (段)

moving along on the training course, she climbed the fire ladder at exactly midday.(点)

she kept climbing higher and higher up the fire ladder.(线)

近看为段,远看为点,特近看为线。这是“远视/近视”distal perspective作用的结果,好比拍照是推远和拉近镜头的效果。

The cows all died in a month. (段)死光

When the cows all died, we sold our farm. (点)一死就埋葬

The cows kept dying (and dying) until they were all gone. (线)死呀死,全死光了。

点和面:

点:the box is 20 feet away from the wall.

I read the book 20 years ago. 读过

面:the box is 2 feet across. 宽二尺

I read the book in 2 hours. 读完

英语on the campus(面),汉语在校园里(域)

在火车上(面),在车厢里(体)

英国人将校园看作“面”(无界),中国人将校园看作“域”(有界)。

5.分布方式pattern of distribution

事物在空间的分布方式

动作在时间轴上的分布方式

示图(63页):状态1→状态2

单向不可复原:die, kill

单向可复原:fall, drop

一个来回(必复原):flash, hit

多个来回: breathe, beat

稳定状态:sleep, carry

状态渐变:widen

例子:

he fell three times.

*he died three times.

He fell and then got up.

*the beacon flashed and then went off.

The river progressively widened

*she progressively slept.

awake状态→asleep状态:

单向(不复原):Go to sleep 睡着了

一个来回:go back to sleep 醒了又睡着了

一个来回半:go to sleep again 睡着了醒了又睡着了

二个来回:go back to sleep again 醒了又睡着,又醒了又睡着

he died as we looked on. 点,单向不可复原

he was (slowly) dying as she looked on. 线,渐变

be +-ing这一语法成分使实词die的词义让步和“应变”

6.单向轴性 axiality

well/sick 加程度副词slightly和almost时,其表现与空间词语 at the border/past

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