自动化专业英语 翻译

自动化专业英语翻译

In recent years the performance requirements for process plant have become increasingly difficult to satisfy. Stronger competition, tougher (更加严苛的) environmental and safety regulations (法规), and rapidly changing economic conditions have been key factors in the tightening of plant product quality specifications (产品质量规范).A further complication (复杂) is that modern processes have become more difficult to operate because of the trend toward larger, more highly integrated plants with smaller surge capacities (谐振能力) between the various processing units. Such plants give the operators little opportunity to prevent upsets (扰乱) from propagating from one unit to other interconnected units. In view of (考虑到，于) the increased emphasis

placed on safe, efficient plant operation, it is only natural that the subject of process control has become increasingly important in recent years. In fact, without process control it would not be possible to operate most modern processes safely and profitably (有利的), while satisfying plant quality standards. 近年来，对过程系统的性能改善需求变得越来越困难. 更为激烈的竞争，更加严格的环境和安全规范，以及快速变化的经济条件都是加强工厂产品质量规范的关键因素更为复杂的情况是，于现代制造业朝着规模更大,集成度更高的方向发展,而使不同的加工环节之间的应变能力更低, 所以加工过程更难控制近年来，考虑到工业制造逐渐加强的安全、高效需求，过程控制这个课题变得越来越受重视. 实际上，对于大多数现代工业，要满足安全、高效，产品质量的要求，没有控制系统是不可能的. It is assumed that the inlet and outlet flow rates are identical (相

同的) and that the liquid density ρ (rho) remains consant, that is, the temperature variations are small enough that the temperature dependence of ρ can be neglected. Under these conditions the volume V of liquid in the tank remains constant. 假设输入和输出流量是相等的，并且液体密度保持恒定，也就是说温度变化足够小，密度对温度的影响可以忽略不计. 在这些条件下，槽内液体的体积保持恒定Use a larger tank. If a larger tank is used, fluctuations (波动) in Ti will tend to be damped out (阻尼，衰减) due to the larger thermal capacitance of the tank contents. However, increased volume of tankage would be an expensive solution for an industrial plant due to the increased capital costs of the larger that this approach is analogous to the use of water baths in chemistry laboratories where the large thermal capacitance of the bath serves as a heat

sink (散热装置) and thus provides an isothermal (恒温的) environment for a small-scale research apparatus (仪器). 使用一个更大的槽. 如果使用更大的槽，因为更大的热容，Ti的波动会趋向于衰减. 然而，体积增加使得开支增加，会使工厂系统的解决方案变得更加昂贵.要指出的是这个方法类似于化学实验室中水缸的使用，水缸的大热容量可以看作散热装置，因此可以为小型研究仪器提供一个恒温环境. Note that in feedforward control, the controlled variable T is not measured. 在前馈控制中，被控变量T是没有被测量的. The motivation of using feedback, illustrated (说明) by the examples in Section (1), is somewhat these examples, the use of feedback is shown to be for the purpose of reducing the error between the reference input and the system , the significance of the effects of feedback in control systems is more

complex than is demonstrated by these simple reduction of system error is merely (仅仅) one of the many important effects that feedback may have upon a system. We show in the following sections that feedback also has effects on such system performance characteristics as stability (稳定性), bandwidth (带宽), overall gain (总增益), disturbance (扰动), and sensitivity (灵敏度). 第一节事例中，应用反馈的动机有些过于简单。在这些例子中，应用反馈的目的是减小参考输入和系统输出间的误差。然而，在控制系统中应用反馈的重要性要比这些简单例子所示的复杂得多. 减少系统误差只是反馈对系统产生的重要作用之一. 在下面的章节里，反馈还能对系统的下列运行特性产生影响：稳定性，带宽，总增益，扰动和灵敏度。In a practical control system, G and H are functions of frequency, so the magnitude of 1+GH may be greater than 1 in one

frequency range but less than 1 in , feedback could increase the system gain in one frequency range but decrease it in another. 在实际的控制系统中，G和H都是频率的函数，因此1+GH的幅值在一种频段下可能增大系统的增益，而在另一频段下又可能减小系统的增益。所以，反馈在一种频段下有可能会加大系统的增益，而在其它频段下减小系统的增益。It can be demonstrated that one of the advantages of incorporating (包含) feedback is that it can stabilize an unstable system. 可以证明，加入反馈的好处之一是能够使不稳定的系统稳定。An important consequence of feedback control is that it can cause oscillatory responses (振荡响应). If the oscillation has a small amplitude and damps out (衰减) quickly, then the control system performance is generally considered to be , under certain circumstances the oscillations may be

undamped (无衰减的) or even have an amplitude that increases with time until a physical limit is reached, such as a control valve being fully open or completely shut. In these situations, the closed-loop system is said to be unstable. 反馈控制的一个重要的结果是会产生振荡响应。如果振荡的幅值很小并且衰减很快，那么一般认为控制系统的运行状态是令人满意的。反馈控制的一个重要的结果是会产生振荡响应。如果振荡的幅值很小并且衰减很快，那么一般认为控制系统的运行状态是令人满意的。然而，在某些情况下，振荡有可能是无阻尼的，甚至幅值会随时间而增大，直到达到了物理极限，比如一个被完全打开或关闭的控制阀。在这些情况下，闭环系统是不稳定的. Before presenting various stability criteria, we introduce the following definition for unconstrained linear systems (无约束线性系统). We use the term \ideal situation where there are no physical limits on the

output variable. 在介绍各种稳定性判据之前，我们先介绍关于无约束线性系统的定义。我们使用术语“无约束”，来特指对输出变量无任何物理约束的理想状况。Definition of stability. An unconstrained linear system is said to be stable if the output response is bounded (有界的) for all bounded inputs. Otherwise it is said to be unstable. 稳定性的定义：对于一个无约束线性系统，如果对所有的有界输入，输出响应你个都是有界的，那么该系统是稳定的，否则就是不稳定的。General Stability Criterion. The feedback control system in Fig. is stable if and only if all roots of the characteristic equation are negative or have negative real parts. Otherwise, the system is unstable. 通用稳定性判据：图所示的反馈控制系统是稳定的，当且仅当所有的特征方程的根都是负的或其实部是负的。否则，系统是不稳定的。Routh Stability Criterion. A

necessary and sufficient condition for all roots of the characteristic equation in Eq.

(12) to have negative real parts is that all of the elements in left column of the Routh array are positive. 特征方程的所有根均具有负实部的充要条件是，劳思阵的左列的所有元素均为正值。Good design eludes (避免) definition (好的设计很难定义), but you can usually recognize something that is well designed. One characteristic of good design is that it is exactly right for the specific necessary is present, but everything unnecessary is absent. 好的设计”很难定义，但通常你可以遇见一些好的设计。好的设计的一个特征是，它恰好适用于特定的场合。包括所有需要的，而排除一切所不需要的。“ The skills needed for good design entail (需要) experience, intuition (直觉), and esthetic (感觉的) sensibility. They are not easily learned from books. The most you ought to expect from any

textbook on design (including this one) is to learn about some useful tools. 好的设计所需要的技巧包括经验、直觉和敏锐的感觉。这些从课本中并不容易学到。在设计方面，你最应该从教科书中期望得到的是学到一些有用的工具。In practice one learns that most systems develop through evolution: not only biological systems, but also human inventions such as the automobile and the airplane. The sleek (豪华的), high-performance automobile can be traced to (上溯到) the humble (粗陋的) model T; the advanced tactical fighter, still on the contractors (承包商) drawing boards, has its roots at Kitty Hawk (基蒂霍克：即莱特兄弟首次两个成功飞行的地点1903年12月17日). 实际上，大多数系统都通过进化发展的，不仅是生物系统，人类的发明，如汽车和飞机也是这样。豪华而高性能的汽车可以追溯到简单的T模型；最先进的，甚至只

出现在承包商的画板上的战斗机，也是起源于老式的“小鹰”飞机。First you need a physical appreciation (判断) of the problem by determining the physical quantity or quantities that must be controlled, and the level of performance required. 首先，你需要通过确定要控制事物的质量或数量，以及所需要的性能级别来正确评价问题After satisfying yourself that you understand the technical and non-technical issues, you make a tentative (实验性的，尝试的) selection of appropriate hardware. Only after the hardware is selected does the analytic phase of the design process begin. 当你感到自己对技术和非技术方面充分理解之后，你会尝试选择合适的硬件。只有选择完硬件之后，设计过程的分析阶段才可以开始The first step is to select an appropriate design methodology.(Here a knowledge of the methods discussed in this book

would be helpful.) Concurrently (同时) you might begin developing a \— a set of differential and algebraic equations that you are confident adequately represents the behavior of the process. The truth model, which can be used in a simulation for evaluating the performance of the design, is usually too complicated for design purposes. Hence you will probably want to develop a “design model” by simplifying the truth model. 第一步是选择合适的设计方法. 同时，你也许要着手建立动态过程的“真实模型”－你确信足以表达过程行为的一系列微分和代数方程。真实模型可以被用于仿真来评估设计性能，但它通常对设计目标来说过于复杂。因此，你将很有可能希望通过简化真实模型来建立一个“设计模型”。Having adopted a design methodology and developed a design model, you proceed to perform the design calculations.采用某种设计方

法，并建立了设计模型之后，该进行设计计算了。The final step in the analytical phase of the design is to evaluate the performance of the system by means of a simulation based on the truth model. 分析过程的最后一步是通过对基于真实模型的仿真来验证系统的运行性能。In principle, the flight control problem could be formulated as a general optimization problem: 原则上，飞行控制问题可以被表述成一个通用的优化问题After a control system is installed the controller settings must usually be adjusted until the control system performance is considered to be satisfactory. This activity is referred to as controller tuning or field tuning of the controller. Because controller tuning is usually done by trial and error (试差法), it can be quite tedious (费时的) and time-consuming. Consequently, it is desirable to have good preliminary (初步

的) estimates of satisfactory controller good first guess may be available from experience with similar control , if a process model or frequency response data are available, some special design methods can be employed to calculate controller settings. However, field tuning may still be required to fine tune the controller, especially if the available process information is incomplete or not very accurate. 当安装了控制系统之后，通常必须先调整控制器的设置，直到控制系统运行达到满意为止。这个活动被称为控制器整定，或控制器的现场整定。于控制器整定通常都采用反复实验的方法，整定过程是十分费时的。因此，我们希望能够初步估计出一个令人满意的控制器设置。首先好的设想可以源于类似控制回路中取得的经验。换句话说，如果已知过程模型或频率响应数据，就可以采用一些特殊的设计方法来计算控制器设置。然而，现场整定仍是控制器

微调所需要的，尤其是当过程信息不完整或不太准确的时候. Flow and liquid pressure control loops are characterized by fast responses (on the order of seconds), with essentially no time delays (没有时间延迟). The process dynamics are due to compressibility (in a gas stream) (气体可压缩性) or inertial effects (in a liquid) (液体惯性). The sensor and signal transmission line may introduce significant dynamic lags (滞后) if pneumatic instruments are used. Disturbances in flow-control systems tend to be frequent but generally not of large magnitude. Most of the disturbances are high-frequency noise (periodic or random) due to stream turbulence (湍流), valve changes, and pump vibration (泵的振动). PI flow controllers are generally used with intermediate values of the controller gain Kc. The presence of recurring (重复) high-frequency noise

rules out (排除在外) the use of derivative action. 流量和液压控制回路的特点是响应快速，基本上没有时间延迟。过程的动态特性是于气流的可压缩性或液体的惯性造成的。传感器和信号传输线如果采用气动设备，有可能会带来很大的动态滞后。流量控制系统中的扰动较为频繁但通常幅值较小。多数扰动是高频噪声，流体紊乱、阀门变化和泵的振动. 通常使用PI流量控制器，控制器增益Kc 取中间值。而不断重复的高频噪声使得微分作用无法使用. Controller field tuning is often performed using trial and error procedures suggested by controller manufacturers. A typical approach for PID controllers can be summarized as follows: 控制器的现场整定经常根据控制器生产厂家的要求，采用经验试凑法Step 3. Increase the controller gain Kc by small-increments (增加) until continuous cycling (循环，这里指振等幅连续) occurs after a small

set-point or load change. The term “continuous cycling\第3步：使设定值或负载变化较小的量，逐步增加控制器增益Kc，直到等幅连续循环出现. 术语“连续循环”指的是等幅振荡Continuous Cycling Method等幅振荡法Process Reaction Curve Method过程响应曲线法These tuning relations have been widely used in industry and serve as a convenient base case for comparing alternative control schemes. However, controller tuning examples presented later in this section indicate that Z-N tuning can be inferior to settings obtained by other methods and should be used with caution. 这些整定关系在工业中得到了广泛的应用，也为比较不同的控制方案提供一个方便的基础。然而，本节将要讲述的控制器整定例子表明，Z-N整定要次于其它方法，应该谨慎使用。Atmosphere pressure is the presence on the earth’s surface due to

weight of the gases in the earth’s atmosphere and is normally expressed at sea level as psi or kPa. It is however, dependant on atmospheric conditions. The pressure decreases above sea level and at an elevation (上升) of 5000 ft drops to about psi ( kPa). 大气压指空气于自身重力作用于地球表面的压力，通常表示为海平面大气压，psi 或kPa. 但是，它取决于空气条件. 海平面之上压力降低，在海拔上升到5000英尺下，压力降低到大约psi ( kPa). Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with respect to (相对于) a vacuum and is expressed in pounds per square inch absolute (psia). 绝对压是相对于真空压测量到的压力，表示为磅每平方英尺(psia). Gauges are a major group of pressure sensors that measure pressure with respect to atmospheric pressure.量表是一类主要的压力传感器，测量相对于大气压的压力.

A diaphragm consists of a thin layer or film (膜) of a material supported on a rigid frame and is

shown in Figure (a). 膜片包含一个薄层或薄膜，支撑在一个刚性框架上，如图(a). A silicon diaphragm uses silicon, which is a semiconductor (半导体). 硅膜片使用硅材料，也就是半导体材料. Capsules are two diaphragms joined back to back, as shown in Figure (b). 膜盒是两个膜片紧密连接，如图(b). Bellows are similar to capsules, except that the diaphragms instead of being joined directly together, are separated by a corrugated tube (波纹管) or tube with convolutions (旋转), as shown in Figure (c). 波纹管类似与膜盒，不同之处在于膜片不是直接连在一起，而是被一个波纹状的管或旋转的管分开，如图(c)所示Bourdon tubes are hollow (中空的), cross-sectional (横截

面) beryllium (铍), copper (青铜), or steel tubes, shaped into a three quarter circle, as shown in Figure (a). 波登管是中空的，横截面是铍，青铜，或钢的，制作成四分之三圆周状，如图(a)所示. The tubes can also be shaped into helical (螺旋状的) or spiral (螺旋形的) shapes to increase their Bourdon tube is normally used for measuring positive gauge pressures, but can also be used to measure negative gauge pressures. 管可以是螺旋状或螺旋形增大或减小.波登管农场用于测量正值表压，但是也可以用于测量负值表压. (helical: 螺旋状，spiral: 绕某一中心点不断靠近或远离) This unit discusses the measurement of the level of liquids and free flowing (自流动) solids in containers (容器). The detector is normally sensing the interface (界面) between a liquid and a gas, a solid and a liquid, or possibly the interface between two liquids. Sensing liquid levels fall into

自动化专业英语课文重点句子翻译(精)

In the case of a resistor, the voltage-current relationship is given by Ohm’s law, which states that the voltage across the resistor is equal to the current through the resistor multiplied by the value of the resistance. 就电阻来说, 电压—电流的关系由欧姆定律决定。欧姆定律指出:电阻两端的 电压等于电阻上流过的电流乘以电阻值。 2]It may be that the inductor voltage rather than the current is the variable of interest in the circuit. 或许在电路中,人们感兴趣的变量是电感电压而不是电感电流。 Viewed in this light, it will be found that the analysis of three-phase circuits is little more difficult than that of single-phase circuits. 这样看来,三相电路的分析比单相电路的分析难不了多少。 At unity power factor, the power in a single-phase circuit is zero twice each cycle. 在功率因数为 1时,单相电路里的功率值每个周波有两次为零。 It should be noted that if the polarity of point Awith respect to N ( is assumed for the positive half-cycle, then when used in the same phasor diagram should be drawn opposite to, or 180? out of phase with, . 应该注意,如果把 A 点相对于 N 的极性(定为正半周,那么在用于同一相量图中时就应该画得同相反,即相位差为 180? One problem with electronic devices corresponding to the generalized amplifiers is that the gains, AU or AI, depend upon internal properties of the two-port system. 对应于像广义放大器这样的电子装置,一个问题就是增益 AU 或者 AI ,它们取决于两输入端系统的内部特性。

专业英语翻译中的常见问题(详细翻译技巧)

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(完整版)医学专业英语翻译及答案

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英语专业 综合英语翻译句子答案

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《自动化专业英语》中英文翻译-中文部分

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汽车专业英语翻译

About car engine Of all automobile components,an automobile engie is the most complicated assembly with dominant effects on the function of an autombile.So, the engine is generally called the"heat"of an automobile. 在汽车的所有部件中，汽车发动机是最复杂的组件，其对整车性能有着决定性的作用。因而发动机往往被称作发动机的“心脏”。 There are actually various types of engines such as electric motors,stream engines,andinternal combustion engines.The internal combustion engines seem to have almost complete dominance of the automotive field.The internal combustion engine,as its name indicates,burns fuel within the cylinders and converts the expanding force of the combustion into rotary force used to propel the vehicle. 事实上，按动力来源分发动机有很多种，如电动机、蒸汽机、外燃机等。然而内燃机似乎在发动机领域有着绝对的统治地位。就像其字面意思一样，内燃机的染料在气缸内燃烧，通过将燃烧产生气体的膨胀力转换成转动力来驱动发动机前进。 Engine is the power source of the automobile.Power is produced by the linear motion of a piston in a cylinder.However,this linear motion must be changed into rotary motion to turn the wheels of cars or trucks.The puston attached to the top of a connecting rod by a pin,called a piston pin or wrist pin.The bottom of the connecting rod is attached to the crankshaft.The connecting rod transmits the up-and-down motion of the piston to the crankshaft,which changes it into rotary motion.The connecting rod is mounted on the crankshaft with large bearings called rod bearing.Similar bearings, called main bearings,are used to mount the crankshaft in the block. 发动机是整部车的动力来源。能量来自于活塞在气缸内的（往复）直线运动。然而这种（往复）直线运动必须要转换成旋转运动才能驱动车轮。活塞与连杆通过一个销来连接，这个销称为活塞销。连杆的下部连接于曲拐。连杆把活塞的上下往复运动传递给曲拐，从而将往复直线运动转变成旋转运动。连杆和曲拐的连接使用大的轴承，称之为连杆轴承，类似的轴承也用于将曲轴连接到机体，称之为主轴承。 They are generally two different types of cooling system:water-cooling system and air-cooling system.Water-cooling system is more common.The cooling medium, or coolant, in them is either water or some low-freezing liquid, called antifreeze.A water-cooling system consists of the engine water jacket, thermostat, water pump, radiator, radiator cap, fan, fan drive belt and neccessary hoses. 主要有两种类型的冷却系统：水冷和风冷。水冷系统更为普遍。系统所用冷却介质或是冷却液常委水或其他低凝固点液体，称为抗凝剂。一个完整的水冷系统包括机体水套，节温器，水泵，散热器，散热器罩，风扇，风扇驱动皮带和必需的水管。 A water-cooling system means that water is used as a cooling agent to circulate through the engine to absorb the heat and carry it to the radiator for disposal.The ebgine is cooled mainly through heat transfer and heat dissipation.The heat generated by the mixture burned in the engine must be transferred from the iron or aluminum cylinder to the waterin the water jacket.The outside of the water jacket dissipates some of the heat to the air surrounding it, but most of the heat is carried by the cooling water to the radiator for dissipation.When the coolant temperature in the system reaches 90°,the termostat valve open fully, its slanted edge shutting off

研究生专业英语第一到第六单元句子翻译修改版

Unit 1 1. 他相当足球明星的梦想随着时间的推移慢慢消退了。 His dream of becoming a football star faded out as time went by. 2. 一架波音747 飞机没有升到足够的高度以飞越那座高山，转瞬间一头撞向大山爆炸了。机上无人生还。 A Boeing 747 aircraft didn 't gain enough height to clear the mountain. In a twinkling, it crashed into the mountain and blew up. No one survived the accident. 3. 学生们可以很容易地获得图书馆的资源，所以他们应该充分地利用好图书馆。Students have easy access to the resources in the library, so they are supposed to make the best of it. 4. 当时世界上最豪华的游轮泰坦尼克号在她前往美国的途中撞到了冰山，结果轮船沉没在大西洋中，成百上千的人死于这场海难。 Titanic, the most luxurious ship in the world at that time , hit an iceberg when she was under way to the US. Consequently, the ship sank into the Atlantic Ocean and thousands of people died in this shipwreck. 5. 每天夏天，游客们都涌向这一著名的海滩。来此享受日光浴的游客像沙丁鱼一样挤满了海滩。 Every summer, all the tourists pour into this famous beach. They lie packed like sardines on the beach to enjoy the sunbathing. 6. 他们曾经到圣路易斯去过一次，对于哪里的新奇事物稍微知道一个大概，可是现在他们的光荣时代已经成过去了。他们从此自知没趣，再也不说话了，而且每逢这个毫不留情的机匠走过来的时候，他们就知道赶快躲开。 The have been to St. Louis once and have a vague general knowledge of its wonders, but the day of their glory is over now. They lapse into humble silence and learn to disappear when the ruthless engineer approaches. Unit 2 1. 有些网络专家认为因特网可以防止战争、减少污染，还能克服种种形式的不平等。Some cyber gurus claim that the Internet will prevent wars, reduce pollution, and combat various forms of inequality. 2. 不可否认，因特网可以增进交流，但他却无法消除战争，因为战争的爆发并不仅仅是由于不同种族间缺乏充分理解而引起的。 Although the Internet undeniably fosters communication, it will not put an end to war, since wars are by no means caused simply by the failure of different peoples to understand each other adequately. 3. 只有当网上的活动能够真正取代现实世界中的行为时，因特网才能帮助节约能源，减少污染。 The Internet can help reduce energy consumption and pollution only if doing things online genuinely displaces real-world activities. 4. 穷人不用因特网并不是因为他们买不起，而是因为他们缺乏必要的技能来有效地利用它，所以提高老百姓的文化水平要比给他们提供上网机会更有意义。 The poor are not shunning the Internet because they cannot afford it. The problem is that they lack the skills to exploit it effectively. Therefore, it makes more sense to aim for universal literacy than universal Internet access.

测绘专业英语原文和部分翻译(1-39)

Table of Contents Uuit 1 What is Geomatics? （什么是测绘学） (2) Unit 2 Geodetic Surveying and Plane Surveying（大地测量与平面测量） (6) Unit 3 Distance Measurement（距离测量） (10) Unit 4 Angle and Direction Measurement（角度和方向测量） (14) Unit 5 Traversing （导线测量） (17) Unit 6 Methods of Elevation Determination（高程测量方法） (21) Unit 7 Robotic Total Station （智能型全站仪） (25) Unit 8 Errors in Measurement（测量工作中的误差） (29) Unit 9 Basic Statistical Analysis of Random Errors (32) Unit 10 Accuracy and Precision （准确度和精度） (35) Unit 11 Least-Squares Adjustment (38) Unit 12 Geodesy Concepts (40) Unit 13 Geoid and Reference Ellipsoid (42) Unit 14 Datums, Coordinates and Conversions (44) Unit 15 Map Projection (46) Unit 16 Gravity Measurment (48) Unit 17 Optimal Design of Geomatics Network (50) Unit 18 Construction Layout （施工放样） (53) Unit 19 Deformation Monitoring of Engineering Struvture (56) Unit 20 Understan ding the GPS（认识GPS） (59) Uuit 21 Understanding the GPS (II) 认识GPS(II) (62) Unit 22 Competition in Space Orbit（太空轨道上的竞争） (64) Unit 23 GIS Basics（GIS 的基础） (69) Unit 24 Data Types and Models in GIS GIS中的数据类型和模型 (75) Unit 25 Digital Terrain Modeling（数字地面模型） (79) Unit 26 Applications of GIS (83) Unit 27 Developments of photogrammetry (87) Unit 28 Fundamentals of Remote Sensing （遥感的基础） (90) Unit 29 Digital Image Processing and Its Applications in RS (94) Unit 30 Airborne Laser Mapping Technology（机载激光测图技术） (99) Unit 31 Interferometric SAR(InSAR) (102) Unit 32 Brief Introduction toApplied Geophysics (104) Unit 33 Origon of Induced Polarization (105) Unit 34 International Geoscience Organization (108) Unit 35 Prestigious Journals in Geomatics (110) Unit 36 Relevant Surveying Instrument Companies (115) Unit 37 Expression of Simple Equations and Scientific Formulsa (116) Unit 38 Professional English Paper Writing (119) Unit 39 Translation Techniques for EST (127)