语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版

Chapter 4

4.1 syntactic （句法的） relations

4.1.1 positional relation(位置关系）

For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause.

Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential （有序的） arrangement of words in a language.

Positional relation are a manifestation(表现）of one aspect of syntagmatic relations Word order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words.

Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.

4.1.2 relation of substitutability(可代替性）

Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure. Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.

This is what Saussure called associative(联想的） relations or in Hjemslev ’s paradigmatic(纵聚性的) relation.

4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence(共现）

Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations.

4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents

4.2.1 Grammatical construction

Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain complex lexemes(词位）

4.2.2 immediate constituents(直接成分）

Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:

S

NP VP

De t N V NP

De t N

The girl ate the apple

This is tree diagram. 在句子结构分析中，成分用来指任何语言单位，而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分，如在The girl ate the apple 本身的（A） the boy（B) ate the apple (C）都是一个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位，如果两个成分B（the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成一个更高的成分A

Word-level

N=noun

A=adjective

V=verb

P=preposition

Det=determiner

Adv=adverb

Conj=conjunction

Phrasal

NP=noun phrase

AP=adjective phrase

VP=verb phrase

PP=preposition phrase

S=sentence or clause

To dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis.

Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.

(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))

2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions

Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.

Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.

4.2.3.Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions

4.2.3.1Endocentric（相信结构）

Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.

Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.

4.2.3.1 Exocentric（并列结构）

Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including

the basic sentence,

the prepositional phrase,

the predicate (verb + object) construction, and

the connective (be + complement) construction.

2.4 Coordination and Subordination

Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:

Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .

Coordination of NPs:

[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]

Coordination of VPs:

[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]

Coordination of PPs:

[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]

Coordination of APs:

[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]

Coordination of Ss:

[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].

Subordination（从属） refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.

The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.

Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:

4.3. Syntactic（句法） Function

The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.

Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.

4.3.1 Subject

In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent. In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” and “logical subject”

Word order

Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:

Pro-forms

The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: Agreement with the verb

In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the

sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb

Content questions

If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in

4.4Category （范畴）

The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability

Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice

4.4.1 Number

Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.

4.4.2Gende(性）

Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.

4.4.3Case（格）

The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.

4.4.4Agreement.

Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).

4.5Phrase, Clause and Sentence

4.5.1phrase

4.5.3Sentence

Basic sentence types: Quirk

SVC Mary is kind.

a nurse.

SVA Mary is here.

in the house.

SV The child is laughing.

SVO Somebody caught the ball.

SVOC We have proved him wrong.

a fool.

SVOA I put the plate on the table.

SVOO She gives me expensive presents.

4.6Recursiveness(递归性）

Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.

Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.

4.6.1Conjoining

Conjoining: coordination.

Conjunctions: and, but, and or.

联系一个小句或者其他并列或链接的过程，通过这种过程组成的句子即并列

4.6.2Embedding（嵌入）

Embedding: subordination.

Main clauses and subordinate clauses.

Three basic types of subordinate clauses:

Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause:

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胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is

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本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process

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新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;

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语言学教程第四版第二章 胡壮麟 主编

Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)

胡壮麟语言学教程课件Part12

Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background

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-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?

【免费下载】胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结

胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 2.function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9515643491.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 3.etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9515643491.html,ying down rules for language use. 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication. 12.phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language. 13.metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies. 14.macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9515643491.html,petence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. 16.performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation. https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9515643491.html,ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. 18.parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). 19.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds. 20.Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. 21.Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. 22.Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.

英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版).

英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer

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第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：

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语言学第七章知识点总结 Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society. In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context. Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors. 1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalities The verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant 2.The relevant objects 3.The effects of the verbal action Speech Community It refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Our language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world. https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9515643491.html,nguage may determine our thinking patterns

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名词解释 Sociolinguistics 1.Sociolinguistics: a field that studies the relations between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structure in which the language users live. 2.Linguistic determinism:L may determine our thinking patterns; 3.Linguistic relativity: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around 4.standard language:the dominant, or prestigious variety is often called standard variety or standard language/dialect, the variety of language which has the highest status in a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated natives. 5.Social dialect, or sociolect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. 6.Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 7.Register:Varieties of language classified according to use in terms of formality, situation and so on. ; Register: Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends. 8.Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used by an individual or a group of speakers since they had regular and continued exposure to more than one language. 9.pidgin: 10.Creole: When a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trade language and becomes the first language of a social community, it becomes a creole. 11.Diglossia: A situation in which two different varieties of the same language are used side by side for two different sets of functions. https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9515643491.html,nguage planning means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries. 13. A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds. 14.Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. Pragmatics 1.Pragmatics: the study of language in use, meaning in context, speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning, contextual meaning. 2.Speech acts: actions performed via utterances, such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation… 3.Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is. They are usually verifiable. 4.Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; they cannot be said to be true or false. 5. A locutionary act (发话行为) : the act of saying something, the literal meaning of the utterance. 6.An illocutionary act （行事行为）: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning, an act performed in saying something. 7.illocutionary force: meaning is used in a narrow sense and is the more constant, inherent side of meaning whereas force is equivalent to speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning(言外之意).

语言学期末复习资料整理版

Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period