材料科学基础名词解释
无机材料科学基础名词解释
第一章
等同点：晶体结构中物质环境和几何环境完全相同的点。
空间格子：联结分布在三维空间内的结点就构成了空间格子。
单位平行六面体：在空间格子中，所选取的平行六面体的对称性符合整个空间点阵的对称性；棱与棱之间的直角应力求最多；在遵循上两个条件的前提下，所选取的平行六面体的体积应最小。考虑到对称性不能为直角时，选结点间距最小的行列做平行六面体的棱，棱间交角接近直角。按照上述选择原则选取的平行六面体称为单位平行六面体。
点群（对称型）：结晶多面体中全部对称要素的组合，称为该结晶多面体的对称型。由于在结晶多面体中，全部对称要素相交于一点（晶体几何中心），在进行对称操作时该点不移动，所以对称型也称为点群。
平移群：晶体结构中所有平移轴的结合。
空间群：在一个晶体结构中所存在的一切对称要素的集合。
晶胞：是指晶体结构中的平行六面体单位，其形状大小与对应的空间格子中的平行六面体一致。
第二章
类质同晶：物质结晶时，其晶体结构中部分原有的离子或原子位置被性质相似的其它离子或原子所占有，共同组成均匀的、呈单一相的晶体，不引起键性和晶体结构变化的现象。
同质多晶：同一化学组成在不同热力学条件下形成结构不同的晶体的现象。
弗伦克尔缺陷：当晶体热振动时，一些能量足够大的原子离开平衡位置而挤到晶格点的间隙中，形成间隙原子，而原来位置上形成空位。
肖特基缺陷：如果正常格点上原子，热起伏后获得能量离开平衡位置，跃迁到晶体的表面，在原正常格点上留下空位。
刃型位错：滑移方向与位错线垂直的位错称为刃型位错。
螺型位错：位错线与滑移方向相互平行的位错称为螺型位错。
正尖晶石：在AB2O4尖晶石型晶体结构中，若A2+分布在四面体空隙、而B3+分布于八面体空隙，称为正尖晶石。
反尖晶石：若A2+分布在八面体空隙、而B3+一半分布于四面体空隙另一半分布于八面体空隙，通式为B(AB)O4，称为反尖晶石。
第三章
晶子学说：玻璃内部是由无数“晶子”组成，微晶子是带有晶格变形的有序区域。它们分散在无定形介中质，晶子向无定形部分过渡是逐渐完成时，二者没有明显界限。
无规则网络学说：凡是成为玻璃态的物质和相应的晶体结构一样，也是由一个三度空间网络所构成。这种网络是由离子多面体（三角体或四面体）构筑起来的。晶体结构网是由多面体无数次有规律重复构成，而玻璃中结构多面体的重复没有规律性。
单键强：单键强即为各种化合物分解能与该种化合物配位数的商。
聚合：在高温时，低聚合物以分离状态存在，当温度降低时有一部分附着在“三维碎片”上，被碎片表面的断键所固定，形成“毛刺”。
解聚：温度再升高，低聚物脱离碎片表面。
网络形成剂：正离子是网络形成离子，对应氧化物能单独形成玻璃。即凡氧化物的单键能/熔点﹥0.74kJ/（mol.k）者称为网络形成剂。
网络变性剂：这类氧化物不能形成玻璃，但能改变网络结构，从而使玻璃性质改变，即单键强/熔点﹤0.125kJ/（mol.k）者称为网络变形剂。
第六章
凝聚系统：不含气相或气相可以忽略的系统。
介稳平衡：即热力学非平衡态，能量处于较高状态，经常出现于硅酸盐系统中。
无变量点：系统自由度为零，处于无变量状态。
一致熔融化合物：具有固定的熔点，融化时，所产生的液相与化合物组成相同的化合物。
不一致熔融化合物：加热这种化合物都某一温度便发生分解，分解产物是一种液相和一种晶相，二者组成和化合物组成皆不相同。
共熔界线：将界线上任一点所作的切线与相应的连线相交，如果交点在连线上，则该界线为共熔界线。
转熔界线：将界线上任一点所作的切线与相应的连线相交，如果交点在连线的延长线上，则该界线为转熔界线。
低共熔点：是一种无变量点，系统冷却时几种晶相同时从熔液中析出，或加热时同时融化。
单转熔点（双升点）：只有一种晶相被转熔。
双转熔点（双降点）：两个晶相被回吸，析出第三种晶相。
连线规则：将一界线（或其延长线）与相应的连线（或其延长线）相交，其交点是该界线上的温度最高点。
切线规则：将界线上某一点所作的切线与相应的连线相交，如交点在连线上，则表示界线上该处具有共熔性质；如交点在连线的延长线上，则表示界线上该处具有转熔性质，远离交点的晶相被回吸。
三角形规则：原始熔体组成点所在副三角形的三个顶点表示的物质即为其结晶产物；与这三个物质相应的初初晶区所包围的三元无变量点是其结晶结束点。
重心规则：如无变点处于其相应副三角形的重心位，则该无变点为低共熔点：如无变点处于其相应副三角形的交叉位，则该无变点为单转熔点；如无变点处于其相应副三角形的共轭位，则该无变点为双转熔点。
液相独立析晶:如果冷却速度不是快到使液相完全失去析晶能力，但也不是慢到足以使它能够和系统中其他晶相保持原有相平衡关系，则此时液相犹如一个原始配料高温熔体那样独自析晶，重新建立一个新的平衡体系。
第七章
无序扩散：原子或离子的无规则扩散迁移运动发生在结构无序的非晶态材料中，称为无序扩散。
晶格扩散：原子或离子在晶体结构中不断地改变位置而出现由一处向另一处的无规则迁移运动，称为晶格扩散。
本征扩散：不含有任何杂质的物质中由于热起伏引起的扩散。
非本征扩散：受固溶引入的杂质离子的电价和浓度等外界因素控制的扩散。
自扩散：一种原子或离子通过由该种原子或离子所构成的晶体中的扩散。
互扩散：两种或两种以上的原子或离子同时参与的扩散。
稳定扩散：是指扩散物质的浓度分布不随时间变化的扩散过程。
不稳定扩散：是指扩散物质浓度分布随时间变化的一类扩散。
第八章
一级相变：体系由一相变为另一相时，两相的化学势相等但化学势的一级偏微商（一级导数）不相等，即相变时有相变潜热，并伴随有体积改变。
二级相变：相变时两相化学势相等，其一级偏微商也相等，但二级偏微商不等，即无相变潜热，没有体积的不连续变化，而只有热容量、热膨胀系数和压缩系数的不连续变化。
玻璃析晶：当玻璃熔体冷却到析晶温度范围时，晶核形成和晶粒长大速率均较大，导致玻璃中析出晶体，即为玻璃析晶。
玻璃分相：一个均匀的玻璃相在一定的温度和组成范围内有可能分成两个互不溶解或部分溶解的玻璃相（或液相），并相互共存，这种现象称为玻璃的分相。
均匀成核：是指晶核从均匀的单相熔体中产生的几率处处是相同的。
非均匀成核：是指借助于表面、界面、微粒裂纹、器壁以及各种催化位置等而形成晶核的过程。
马氏体相变：一个晶体在外加应力的作用下通过晶体的一个分立体积的剪切作用以极迅速的速率而进行相变称为马氏体转变。
第九章
熔融温度：全部组元都转变为液相的温度。
烧结温度：坯体在高温作用下，发生一系列物理化学反应，最后显气孔率接近于零，达到致密程度最大值时，工艺上称此种状态为"烧结"，达到烧结时相应的温度，称为"烧结温度"。
泰曼温度：固相反应开始温度常远低于反应物的熔点或系统低共熔温度。这一温度与反应物内部开始呈现明显扩散作用的温度相一致。常称为泰曼温度或烧结开始温度。
体积密度：在包含密闭空隙的状态下单位体积的质量称为体积密度。
理论密度：同种材料在无孔状态下的密度。
相对密度：体积密度和理论密度之比。
固相烧结：没有液相参与，完全是由固体颗粒之间的高温固结过程。
液态烧结：有液相参与的烧结。
晶粒生长：是指多晶体材料在高温保温过程中系统平均晶粒尺寸逐步上升的现象。
二次再结晶：再结晶结束后正常长大被抑制而发生的少数晶粒异常长大的现象。
晶粒极限尺寸：晶粒正常生长，由于夹杂物对晶界移动的牵制使晶粒大小不超过某极限尺寸，这样的生长极限尺寸为晶粒极限尺寸。
晶粒平均尺寸：烧结中、后期，细晶粒逐渐长大：一些晶粒生长伴随另一些晶粒缩小、消失，平均晶粒尺寸增长，晶粒会有一个平均尺寸。
美国文学名词解释
1. Transcendentalism The origin of it is a philosophical and literary movement centered in Concord and Boston, which marks the summit of American Transcendentalism. 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of man, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths. The major features of American Transcendentalism are:It emphasis on spirit, or the Oversoul, as the most important thing in the universe. It stressed the importance of the individual. To them the individual was the most important element of society. It offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God. 2.Romanticism The Romanticism period stretches from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil War. It is a term associate with imagination boundlessness, and in critical usage is contrasted with classicism which is commonly associated with reason and restriction. The features of Romanticism are: American Romanticism was in a way derivative: American romantic writing was some of them modeled on English and European works. American romanticism was in essence the expression of "a real new experience "and contained"an alien quality".Representatives:William Cullen Bryant; Henry Longfellow and James Cooper, Washington Irving. 3.Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.The representatives are Howells, James, and Mark Twain. 4. Naturalism American naturalism was a new and harsher realism, it had come from Europe. Naturalism was an outgrowth of realism that responded to theories in science, psychology, human behavior and social thought current in the late nineteenth century. The background of naturalism are: In the last decade of the nineteenth century, with the development of industry and modern science, intelligent minds began to see that man was no longer a free ethical being in a cold, indifferent and essentially Godless universe. In this chance world he was both helpless and hopeless.Major Features of it are:Humans are controlled by laws of heredity and environment.The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires.Representatives of it such as Stephen Crane, Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser. 5.New Criticism The New Criticism as a school of poetry and criticism established itself in the 1940s as an academic orthodoxy in the United States. The school has its beginning in the 1920s. It focus on the analysis of the text rather paying attention to external elements such as its social background, its author's intention and political attitude, and its impact on society. Then it explores the artistic structure of the work rather than its author's frame of mind or its reader's responses. It also see a literary work as an organic entity, the unity of content and form, and places emphasis on the close reading of the text. These New Critics included T.S. Eliot,I.A.Richards,John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate and some other critics. The New Criticism has tended to divorce criticism from social and moral concerns, which was to become one salient feature of the movement. 6.Imagism: Between 1912 and 1922 there came a great poetry boom in which about 1000 poets published over 1000 volumes of poetry. Indeed ,to express the modern spirit, the sense of fragmentization and dislocation, was in large measure the aim of quite a few modern literary movements, of which Imagism was one.The first Imagist theorist, the English writer T.E.Hulme. Hulme suggests that modern art deals with expression and communication of momentary phases in the poet's mind. The most effective means to express these momentary impressions is through the use of dominant image.It is a literary movement launched American poets early in the 20th century that advocated the use of free verse, common speech patterns, and clear concrete images as a reaction to Victorian sentimentalism. The representatives are Ezra pound, William Carlos Williams and some other poets.
美国文学史复习提纲 名词解释
I. Explain the following literary terms(名词解释). 1. Romanticism The most profound and comprehensive idea of romanticism is the vision of a greater personal freedom for the individual. Appeals to imagination; Stress on emotion rather than reason; optimism, gen iality. Subjectivity: in form and meaning. 2 American transcendentalism American transcendentalism was an important movement in philosophy and literature that flourished during the early to middle years of the nineteenth century (about 1836-1860). For the transcendentalists, the soul of each individual is identical with the soul of the world and contains what the world contains. 3 Realism: ―nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material.‖ the Civil war a. verisimilitude of details derived from observation b. representative in plot, setting and character c. an objective rather than an idealized view of human experience or（American Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.） 4. Modernism like modernism in general is a trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation, and is thus in its essence both progressive and optimistic. The general term covers many political, cultural and artistic movements rooted in the changes in Western society at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. American modernism is an artistic and cultural movement in the United States starting at the turn of the 20th century with its core period between World War I and World War II and continuing into the 21st century. 5、American Puritanism: Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the Puritans. The Puritans were originally members of a division of the Protestant Church. The first settlers who became the founding fathers of the American nation were quite a few of them. They were a group of serious, religious people, advocating highly religious and moral principles. As the word itself hints, Puritans wanted to purity their religious beliefs and practices. They accepted the doctrine of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace form God. As a culture heritage, Puritanism did have a profound influence on the early American mind. American Puritanism also had a enduring influence on American literature. 6、Transcendentalism: In New England, an intellectual movement known as transcendentalism developed as an American version of Romanticism. The movement began among an influential set of authors based in Concord, Massachusetts and was led by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Like Romanticism, transcendentalism rejected both 18th century rationalism and established religion, which for the transcendentalists meant the Puritan tradition in particular. The transcendentalists celebrated the power of the human imagination to commune with the universe and transcend the limitations of the material world. They found their chief source of inspiration in nature. Emerson’s essay Nature was the major document of the transcendental school and stated the ideas that were to remain central to it. 7、Free verse: free verse is the rhymed or unrhymed poetry composed without attention to conventio nal rules of meter. Free verse was first written and labeled by a group of French poets of the late 19th century. Their purpose was to deliver poetry from the restrictions of formal metrical patterns and to recreate the free rhythms of natural speech. Walt Whitman was the precursor who wrote lines of varying length and cadence, usually not rhymed. The emotional content or meaning of the work was expressed through its rhythm. Free verse has been characteristic of the work of many modern American poets, including Ezra Pound and Carl Sandburg. 8、Naturalism: A more deliberate kind of realism in novels, stories and plays, usually involving a view of human beings as passive victims of natural forces and social environment. Naturalism was a new and harsher realism. It
国际经济学名词解释
国际经济学复习 相对价格：商品之间价格关系的动态反映，专指两种或多种商品之间由供给与需求作用所形成的价格比例关系。在国际贸易中所交换的商品价格之间的比例关系。它体现交换双方的贸易利益。 比较优势：所谓比较优势是指一国在绝对优势基础上的相对较大的优势，在绝对劣势基础上的相对较少的劣势。比较优势主张以各国生产成本或相对差异为基础进行专业化分工，并通过国家贸易获得利益的一种国际贸易理论。比较优势实际上取决于劳动生产率的相对水平。一国在劳动生产率相对较高的部门或产品上具有比较优势。 边际替代率：在保持同等效用水平的条件下，消费者增加一单位某种商品的消费可以代替的另一种商品的消费量。它是无差异曲线的斜率。通常，由于生产过程中投入的生产要素是不完全替代的，随着一种生产要素数量的增加，该要素对另外一种要素的边际替代率是递减的。 边际技术替代率：在维持产量水平不变的条件下，增加一单位某种生产要素投入量时所减少的另一种要素的投入量，在只有两种要素劳动L和资本K 的情况下，边际技术替代率MRTS可以记做：MRTSLK=-△K/△L 机会成本：机会成本是指在一国资源达到充分利用时，要增加某一产品的生产，必须放弃另一种产品生产的数量。 边际成本：每一单位新增生产的产品（或者购买的产品）带来到总成本的增量。 规模经济：由于生产专业化水平的提高等原因，使企业的单位成本下降，从而形成企业的长期平均成本随着产量的增加而递减的经济。 倾销：在不同国家市场间进行的一种价格歧视行为。它是指出口商以低于本国国内价格或成本的价格向国外销售商品的行为。构成依据：1进口国生产同类型产品的企业是否受到低价进口品的冲击，以致其市场份额明显减少。2进口国生产同类型产品的企业的利润水平是否明显降低。3在低价进口品的冲击下，进口国的同类产业是否难以建立起来。持续性/掠夺性 最佳关税：使本国福利达到最大的关税水平。确定条件：进口国由征收关税所引起的额外损失（边际损失）与额外收益（边际收益）相等。 幼稚产业:某种由于技术经验不足、劳动生产率低下、产品成本高于世界市场价格，因而无法与国外产业竞争，但在关税、补贴等保护措施下继续生产一段时间，经过一段时间的生产能够在自由贸易条件下获利，达到其他国家水平而自立，形成比较优势并良性发展的产业。某一产业处于发展初期，基础和竞争力薄弱但经过适度保护能够发展成为具有潜在比较优势的新兴产业。 贸易创造:国际贸易理论与实践中指两个或两个以上国家间结成关税同盟后，因取消关税降低了贸易商品的价格，使产品从成本较高的国内生产转向成本较低的贸易对象国生产，本国从贸易对象国进口。由于国际经济一体化组织成员国之间相互取消了关税和与关税具有同等效力的其他措施，造成了他们相互之间贸易规模的扩大和福利水平的提高。贸易转移:两个或两个以上国家间的关税同盟建立后，成员国的部分进口商品将从低成本供应国(非成员国)转向高成本供应国(成员国)。对进口国是福利损失。 国际收支：在一定时期内（通常为一年）一国居民与世界其他国家居民之间的全部经济交易的系统记录。主要目的：使政府当局了解本国（地区）的对外经济交往状况，从而为制定相应的经济管理政策提供信息和依据。 马歇尔-勒纳条件：表明如果一国处于贸易逆差中，即Vx
美国文学名词解释
Allegory is a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings. One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose in the world. Alliteration is a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds. The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action that is taking place. Aside is an actor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage. An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking. Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play. Gothic is a literary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other “dark” subjects. Gothic literature was named for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the genre. Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic” surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad fro m the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-Tale Heart.”In essence, these stories were romances, largely due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many different points of view. CATHARSIS is an emotional discharge that brings about a moral or spiritual renewal or welcome relief from tension and anxiety. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the marking feature and ultimate end of any tragic artistic work. IMAGERY: A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion, simile, or metaphor. Surrealism is an artistic movement doing away with the restrictions of realism and verisimilitude that might be imposed on an artist. In this movement, the artist sought to do away with conscious control and instead respond to the irrational urges of the subconscious mind. From this results the hallucinatory, bizarre, often nightmarish quality of surrealistic paintings and writings. Sample surrealist writers include Frank O'Hara, John Ashberry, and Franz Kafka.
美国文学简史名词解释定义
American Puritanism: Puritanism was a religious reform movement that arose within the Church of England in the late sixteenth century. Under siege from church and crown, it sent an offshoot in the third and forth decades of the seventeenth century to the northern English colonies in the New World--- a migration that laid the foundation for the religious, intellectual, and social order of New England, Puritanism, however,was not only a historically specific phenomenon coincident with the founding of New England; it was also a way of being in the world---a style of response to lived experience---that has reverberated through American life ever since. Doctrinally, Puritans adhered to the Five Points of Calvinism as codified at the Synod of Dort in 1619:(1) unconditional election ( the idea that God had decreed who was damned and who was saved from before the beginning of the world); (2) limited atonement ( the idea that Christ died for the elect only); (3) total depravity (humanity's utter corruption since the Fall); (4) irresistible grace (regeneration as entirely a work of God, which cannot be resisted and to which the sinner contributes nothing); and (5) the perseverance of the saints (the elect, despite their backsliding and faintness of heart , cannot fall away from grace). American Dream: The American Dream is the faith held by many in the United States of America that through hard work, courage, and determination one can achieve a better life for oneself, usually through financial prosperity. These were values held by many early European settlers, and have been passed on to subsequent generations. Nowadays the American Dream has led to an emphasis on material wealth as a measure of success and\ or happiness. Gothic tradition: Gothic novel or Gothic romance is a story of terror and suspense, usually set in a gloomy old castle or monastery. In an extended sense, many novels that do not have a medievalized setting, but which share a comparably sinister, grotesque, or chaustrophobic atmosphere have been classed as Gothic. It contributed to the new emotional climate of Romanticism. Historical novel: a novel in which the action takes place during a specific historical period well before the time of writing ( often one or two generations before, sometimes several centuries), and in which some attempt is made to depict accurately the customs and mentality of the period. The central character---real or imagined---is usually subject to divided loyalties within a larger historic conflict of which readers know the outcome. The pioneers of this genre were Walter Scott and James Fenimore Cooper American Romanticism:Romanticism refers to an artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th century and characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions. The romantic period in American literature stretched from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil
国际经济学之名词解释
国际经济学之名词解释 Chapter 3 1.Absolute advantage（绝对优势）:A country has an absolute advantage in a production of a good if it has a lower unit labor requirement(aLW 单位产品劳动投入) than the foreign country in this good. https://www.sodocs.net/doc/ba9373991.html,parative Advantage（相对优势）: A country has a comparative advantage in producing a good if the opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of other goods is lower in that country than it is in other countries. 3.Opportunity Cost（机会成本）：The opportunity cost of roses in terms of computers is the number of computers that could be produced with the same resources as a given number of roses. 4.The unit labor requirement： the number of hours of labor required to produce one unit of output, such as aLW (wine) and aLC (cheese) 5.Production Possibilities frontier（生产可能性边界）： The production possibility frontier (PPF) of an economy shows the maximum amount of a good (say wine) that can be produced for any given amount of another (say cheese). Chapter 4 1.Abundant factor: the resource of which a country has a relatively large supply(labor in home,land in foreign) 2.Biased expansion of production possibilities: when the production possibility frontier shifts out much more in one direction than in the other. 3.Equalization of factor prices: when Home and Foreign trade, the relatives prices of goods converge. This convergence, in turn, causes convergence of the relative prices of land and labor. 4.Heckscher-Ohlin theory: It shows that comparative advantage is influenced by Relative factor abundance (refers to countries) and Relative factor intensity (refers to goods)It is also referred to as the factor-proportions theory. 5.Scarce factor: in that country, and the resource of which it has a relatively small supply( land in Home, labor in foreign)