外文原文加翻译

Trade liberalization and patterns of strategic adjustment in the US textiles and clothing industry

Belay Seyoum

U.S.A.

International Business Review ,Issue 16 ,2007

Belay Seyoum

Nova Southeastern University, 3301 College Avenue, Ft. Lauderdale , FL 33314, USA Received 2 December 2005; received in revised form 17 April 2006, 11 October 2006, 23 November 2006; accepted13 December 2006

The overall environment facing the US industry will one of rapidly changing market conditions and technological innovation. With the phase out of quotas and growing number of trade agreements, the US TC industry is being exposed to intense competition in export and domestic markets. This is likely to lead domestic industries/labor to demand intervention by national governments to mitigate the adverse impact of trade liberalization ( Standbury & Vertinksy, 2004).

In spite of the substantial job losses, the US TC industry remains technologically advanced partly due to increased productivity resulting from advances in technology and design capabilities. Textile production is capital intensive and modern technology is essential to meet the increasing for high-quality products. Over the last few years, US textiles and apparel firms have substantially increased their investment to maintain modern manufacturing facilities as well as improve production and marketing capabilities in order to maximize their inherent advantages to market proximity. In apparel, low skill production jobs have moved to low-cost locations offshore while the more skilled ones have been retained. To successfully adapt to the new environment, US TC industries need to capitalize on their sources of competitive advantage. They need to develop a more flexible operational arrangement, meet high standards in product innovation and generally develop a more change-seeking business culture (Kilduff, 2005).

An important survival tool for US TC firms is to expand their potential market by offering new product designs and product categories. Manufacturers must try to bring a steady stream of products to market that are in line with the taste, preferences of the consumer. They can also expand their market potential by offering new product categories. Two of the fastest growing apparel segments in the US, for example, have been the women’s plus and men’s big and tall segments (Driscoll, 2004). Plus-size apparel marketing was estimated at $47 billion in 2005 accounting for 20% of total apparel market. It is important to identify the firm’s target customers and assess whether the firm is successfully addressing their needs.

US TC firms should target a narrow segment of the market that provides the best

opportunity for success. In textiles, the focus should be on a few specialized segments such as carpets, nonwovens and technical textiles. Similarly, apparel producers should increase their focus on core products, reduce vertical integration to shed overhead costs, and establish alliances with other firms to consolidate resources and increase market share.

Finally, in view of rising incomes and high growth rates in many developing countries such as China, Brazil, and India, there are potential export market opportunities for US textile and apparel products. US export interests may be served by seeking improved access to the retail distribution systems of developing countries. US textile firms should also be able to use Mexico to export to the European Union and other countries, taking advantage of the Mexico-EU trade agreement. Since the conclusion of NAFTA, a number of Asian and European firms have produced certain products in Mexico in order to export to the US market.

This paper suggests a demand pull model as a basis for developing a network structure in the clothing industry. In a demand pull model, consumer demand is the driver of sales unlike the supply push model whereby the manufacturer pushes goods to the retailer regardless of consumer demand.

Retail companies have become powerful due to their sufficient capital and marketing expertise to build loyalty among consumers. They are the lead firm in view of their central role in the organizational network. The lead clothing retailer integrates industrial capabilities such as sourcing of textiles, design, product branding and its relations with consumers enables it to keep abreast of fashion consumption trends.

The lead firm conveys its requirements to these changing trends (changes in style, material requirements) to its suppliers or subcontractors (Table 7). It also provides assistance with the purchasing of capital equipment and technology necessary to produce apparel in accordance with market demand. The fragmented webs of suppliers and subcontractors are bound together through information technology, online data sharing, joint product development, and collaborative forecasting, planning and replenishment activities. Retailers will hold less inventory as shipments become smaller and more frequent since point of sale data is directly transmitted to the manufacturer/supplier who will produce and ship garments as it is needed. This model

shows the role of the retailer as an intermediary integrating the functions of design, textile sourcing, branding and as facilitator of apparel production through a web of suppliers/subcontractors. Such restructuring through technological improvements and information technology is one means of succeeding in an increasingly competitive environment. The horizontally structured, mass production methods no longer ensure future competitiveness.

The lion’s share of the benefits from quota eliminatio n is expected to accrue to China. Its low labor cost, high productivity, range and flexibility of services as well as efficient supplier networks will make China the supplier of choice. About 87% of apparel executives that participated in a cotton sourcing summit in Miami in February 2004, agreed that China will soon account for 50-90% of all apparel sold in the US market(National Labor Committee, 2004). This means rationalization of production and a massive consolidation of vendors. Other winners are likely to include India and Pakistan in narrow segments of the TC industry. The elimination of quotas is also likely to lead to lower prices for consumers in view of the absence of quota costs which is often a significant part of the cost of TC sold in the US market. Well-known brands may still hold market value since they are not subject to retail price deflation. It is important for TC firms to evaluate their internal capabilities such as sourcing, manufacturing, logistics, transportation etc. in order to develop an action plan for the post-quota world.

Exporters from Latin America, Africa and the Caribbean are likely to lose market share to China since they largely compete on price (not quality) and lack the capability to produce high value added products. Even with the introduction of safeguards on a range of products that are of export interest to these countries, their US market share has declined since the phase out of quotas. With the complete removal of quotas in 2008, it is difficult for these countries to compete on price. Since the US government lifted quotas in 2002 on 29 categories, for example, China’s market share (in these categories) jumped from just 9% (2002) to 65% (2003) while prices paid by US retailers (for apparel from China) dropped by 48% (National Labor Committee, 2004). In cotton dressing gowns (quotas removed) China’s share in 2003 jumped from 25% to 39% while that of Caribbean countries fell from 13% to a mere 3%. In the first 12 months after the phase out of quotas, China’s market shar e in apparel rose by 59% in value while that of many Central and South American countries showed a sharp decline.

What are the implications for TC firms in countries that are vulnerable to competition from China? First, they should capitalize on their proximity to the US market. Their ability to offer lower transport cost, lower lead times as well as duty free entry to the US market may attract the fashion-oriented segment of the USindustry. This will depend on access to good local transport infrastructure to get goods to market as well as advanced telecommunications systems to link suppliers and customers. Local firms and governments need to collaborate in creating a climate which is conducive to business and to develop infrastructure to attract and retain TC industries that are so vital in generating exports and employment.

Secondly, low wages do not necessarily provide a comparative advantage with

respect to China. Firms should develop new capabilities in areas in which China does not have a comparative advantage (yarn, and silk non-apparel). This requires, inter alia, investment in modern production methods and development of competitive sources of local raw materials. Even in product areas in which China is expanding its exports, developing country suppliers that enhance their skills, technology, supply chains and marketing capabilities (through joint ventures, licensing arrangements) faster than China can still maintain their shares to the US market.

Thirdly, an important strategic consideration that limits the competitive impact of China is the need on the part of multinationals to diversify their risk portfolios. US manufacturers and retailers are likely to adopt a diversified risk adjusted sourcing strategy that balances cost, speed to market as well as political and economic stability. They may not be prepared to rely on China for critical inputs beyond a certain threshold of risk. Furthermore, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean could be attractive options for US companies in some fashion sensitive segments of the industry where quick response or fast turnaround is important.

Finally, existing US rules of origin requirements to qualify for free access to the US market have had unintended consequences. One of the requirements is that they have to use US yarn and fabric. This has had the effect of making their exports less competitive. The US may have to modify its rules of origin to allow developing countries to import from Asia or other competitive sources without losing their preferential status.

美国纺织品和服装产业的贸易自由化和战略调整模式

贝蕾·塞尤姆

美国

国际商务评论，第16期,2007年

贝蕾·塞尤姆

诺娃东南大学，学院大道3301，劳德代尔堡，佛罗里达33314，美国2005年12月2日收到稿件；分别于2006年4月17日、2006年10月11日和2006年11月23日收到修改稿件；2006年12月13日正式录用

美国纺织品和服装行业面临的是一个市场条件快速变化、科技不断创新的环境。随着配额的取消和越来越多贸易协议的出现，美国的纺织品和服装行业在出口和国内市场上面临着更为激烈的竞争。这可能会导致国内的企业/劳动者向本国政府施加压力要求进行需求的干预，通过这种做法来缓和贸易自由化带来的不利影响。（斯坦德贝瑞和维丁克思2004）

尽管美国国内纺织行业的就业人数大量减少，美国纺织品和服装行业依然保持着技术性的进步，主要是依靠在技术上和设计上的能力取得的进步使得生产率大幅度的提高。纺织品产品是资本密集型的，这种高质量产品需要现代的技术来满足增长的需求。在过去的若干年中，美国的纺织品和服装企业为了达到市场邻近的内在优势的最大化增加了相当大的投资，来保持现代生产的能力和改善生产和营销的能力。在服装方面，低技术含量的生产工作已经被转移到低成本的国家，而高技术含量的生产工作仍然在本国进行。为了能顺利地适应新的环境，美国纺织品和服装行业需要将他们的竞争优势变成资本。他们需要建立起一套更灵活的操作系统来满足生产创新的高标准，另外还要建立起更容易变化—寻找的商业文化。（克里度夫，2005）

美国纺织品和服装企业的一个重要生存手段就是通过提供新产品的设计和产品目录来扩大他们潜在的市场。生产者必须试着将一个稳定的产品系列引入到与消费者的口味和偏好相一致的市场中去。他们同样能通过提供新的产品目录来扩大他们的潜在市场。比如，在美国增长最快的两个服装部门是女式的加大服装部门和男式的大而高的服装部门。（迪瑞斯科，2004）加大型服装销售在2005年估计达到470亿美元，占整个服装市场的20%重要的一点是识别企业的目标顾客和评定企业是否Ⅲ—18 能成功的满足他们的需求。

美国的纺织品和服装企业应该以一个狭小的提供最好的成功机会的市场部门作为目标。在纺织品方面，重点应该放在一些诸如地毯，非纺织而成的纺织品和技术类的纺织品上。同样，服装生产者应该将他们的注意力更多的集中在核心产品上，将垂直生产费用减少到企业的管理费用，和其他的企业建立联盟来巩固资和增加市场的份额。

最后，鉴于诸如中国、巴西和印度这样的发展中国家收入的增加和高增长率，对于美国纺织品和服装产品有许多潜在的出口市场机会。通过寻找已经改善的发展中国家的零售系统令美国获得出口利益。美国纺织品企业同样能够利用墨西哥和欧盟之间的贸易协定，通过墨西哥将产品出口到欧盟和其他的国家。由于北美自由贸易区协定的存在，为了能出口到美国市场，许多亚洲和欧洲企业已经在墨西哥生产某些产品。

本文建立了一个需求推动模型，将其作为发展服装纺织行业的网络框架的基础。在这个需求推动的模型中，消费者的需求是销售的推动力，这个模型不同于供给推动模型，在那个模型中生产者不考虑消费者的需求而将产品提供给零售商。

零售公司实力雄厚是由于他们有足够的资金和市场营销知识在客户间树立起誉度。由于在整个组织框架中他们处于中心地位，所以他们是领导性的企业。这些领头的服装零售商具备整合诸如纺织品来源、设计、产品的品牌和客户之间的联系等产业之间的能力，使得他们能够始终跟随着时尚消费的趋势。

领导性的企业将它们的需求传递到这些不断变化的趋势中（造型、原材料需求上的变化），传递到它们的供应商或者转包合同商那里。（图7）。它同样提供资金设备的销售和技术，这些都是使服装生产满足市场需求所必的通过信息技术、在线数据的共享、共同产品的发展，合作性的预测、计划和补货活动，各种供应商和转包合同商总是联系在一起。当运输变的越来越小型化、越来越频繁的时候，当销售的数据直接传送到生产和负责运输的服装生产商和供应商那里的时候，零售商将保留少量的库存。这个模型解释了零售商的作用，它是作为一个中间人，起到综合设计、纺织品来源、品牌的功能，而且通过一系列的供应商/转包合同商来作为服装生产的便利者。通过技术改进和信息技术进行的这些重新构建在竞争越来越激烈的环境中是一种不断前进的方式。水平的构建，大量的生产方法不再确保未来的竞争性。

配额取消所带来的市场份额的大幅度增长被认为是有利于中国的发展的。中国低廉的劳动力成本，高的生产效率和产量，灵活多变的服务和有效的供应网络将使得中国成为供应商的选择。在参加2004年2月于迈阿密举行的棉花来源会议的服装执行官中，大约有87%的人认为中国在不久以后将占有美国市场所有销售服装的50%—90%的份额（国家劳动委员会，2004年）。这意味着中国生产的合理性和拥有大量稳定的买主。在纺织品和服装行业的狭窄部门中，其他受益的国家可能包括印度和巴基斯坦。配额的取消同样可能带给消费者低价，这是由于配额成本的消失，在美国市场上配额的成本是纺织品和服装销售成本中的一个重要组成部分。知名的品牌仍然保持着市场的价值因为它们不会受到零售价格缩水的影响。为了建立一个后配额时代的实施计划，估计纺织品和服装企业的内在能力诸如产品的来源，生产，后勤，运输等对于他们来说是很重要。

来自拉丁美洲、非洲和加勒比海的出口商可能会将失去的市场份额白白让给中国，因为他们主要是在价格上展开竞争（而不是在质量上），没有能力去生产高附加值的产品。即使一定的贸易保护对这些国家的部分产品出口有利，但是自从配额取消以来他们在美国市场的份额是下降的。随着2008年配额的完全取消，这些国家很难在价格上进行竞争。举个例子，

美国政府在2002年解除了对29类商品的配额限制，中国在美国的市场份额从原来区区的9%（2002年）一下子跃升到65%（2003年），而美国零售商（从中国购买服装的）价格下降了48%（国家劳动委员会，2004年）。在棉制睡衣方面（配额的取消），中国占美国的市场份额在2003年从25%上升到39%而加勒比海国家的棉制睡衣在美国的市场份额从13%下降到只有仅仅的3%在配额取消的前12个月，中国服装在美国的市场份额价值上上升了59%而许多中美和南美国家却是出现明显下降的趋势。对于那些面临中国激烈竞争的国家来说，他们应该怎么办呢？首先，他们应该充分利用与美国在地理条件上邻近的这种优势。这些国家能够提供比较低的运输成本，比较短的交货时间和享受出口美国市场关税豁免的优惠政策，这些都将吸引美国产业中那些以时尚为导向的部门。这将依赖于当地更好的的运输基础结构的获取，这些基础结构能将好的产品送到更好的市场上，同时依赖于更先进通信系统的获得，它们用来连接供应商和客户。当地企业和政府需要在创造性的环境下进行合作，这个环境是通过促进商务和发展基础结构来吸引和保持纺织品和服装行业的，因为纺织品和服装行业在创造出口和就业方面的作用很大。

其次，低工资并不意味着中国有相对的比较优势。企业应该在中国没有比较优势的那些领域（纱线、丝、非纺织类方面）挖掘出他们的新潜能。这需要在现代生产方法上进行其他项目的投资，需要在当地原材料来源的竞争性上进行发展。甚至在中国正在扩大出口的那些产品的领域上，发展中国家的供应商也可以比中国更快地提高他们生产的技能、技术水平、供应链和市场营销的能力（通过合资、许可证授权），来保持他们在美国市场上的份额。

第三，限制中国竞争作用的一个重要的战略考虑就是扩大对多个国家的需要来分散他们的风险比重。美国的生产者和零售商可能会采取一种分散风险的调整来源国的战略来平衡成本，加速市场、政治、经济上的稳定性。他们不会单单依赖中国提供主要的进口产品，因为这样会超出一定的风险界限。再者，墨西哥、中美洲和加勒比海国家在一些时尚的部门上对美国的公司有着吸引，这些部门对时尚的快速反应变化是非常重要的。

最后，现有的美国对原产地规则限制了对美国市场的自由获取，这种规则已经产生了不可预料的结果。其中一个要求是他们不得不使用美国的纱线和纤维。这已经对他们出口竞争压力的减少产生了作用。美国可能不得不修改原产地规则来允许发展中国家从亚洲或者其他竞争性的来源国进口而不会失去他们的有利地位。

1外文文献翻译原文及译文汇总

华北电力大学科技学院 毕业设计（论文）附件 外文文献翻译 学号：121912020115姓名：彭钰钊 所在系别：动力工程系专业班级：测控技术与仪器12K1指导教师：李冰 原文标题：Infrared Remote Control System Abstract 2016 年 4 月 19 日

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ASP外文翻译原文

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毕业设计外文翻译附原文

外文翻译 专业机械设计制造及其自动化学生姓名刘链柱 班级机制111 学号1110101102 指导教师葛友华

外文资料名称： Design and performance evaluation of vacuum cleaners using cyclone technology 外文资料出处：Korean J. Chem. Eng., 23(6), (用外文写) 925-930 (2006) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文 2.外文原文

应用旋风技术真空吸尘器的设计和性能介绍 吉尔泰金，洪城铱昌，宰瑾李， 刘链柱译 摘要：旋风型分离器技术用于真空吸尘器 - 轴向进流旋风和切向进气道流旋风有效地收集粉尘和降低压力降已被实验研究。优化设计等因素作为集尘效率，压降，并切成尺寸被粒度对应于分级收集的50％的效率进行了研究。颗粒切成大小降低入口面积，体直径，减小涡取景器直径的旋风。切向入口的双流量气旋具有良好的性能考虑的350毫米汞柱的低压降和为1.5μm的质量中位直径在1米3的流量的截止尺寸。一使用切向入口的双流量旋风吸尘器示出了势是一种有效的方法，用于收集在家庭中产生的粉尘。 摘要及关键词：吸尘器; 粉尘; 旋风分离器 引言 我们这个时代的很大一部分都花在了房子，工作场所，或其他建筑，因此，室内空间应该是既舒适情绪和卫生。但室内空气中含有超过室外空气因气密性的二次污染物，毒物，食品气味。这是通过使用产生在建筑中的新材料和设备。真空吸尘器为代表的家电去除有害物质从地板到地毯所用的商用真空吸尘器房子由纸过滤，预过滤器和排气过滤器通过洁净的空气排放到大气中。虽然真空吸尘器是方便在使用中，吸入压力下降说唱空转成比例地清洗的时间，以及纸过滤器也应定期更换，由于压力下降，气味和细菌通过纸过滤器内的残留粉尘。 图1示出了大气气溶胶的粒度分布通常是双峰形，在粗颗粒（>2.0微米）模式为主要的外部来源，如风吹尘，海盐喷雾，火山，从工厂直接排放和车辆废气排放，以及那些在细颗粒模式包括燃烧或光化学反应。表1显示模式，典型的大气航空的直径和质量浓度溶胶被许多研究者测量。精细模式在0.18?0.36 在5.7到25微米尺寸范围微米尺寸范围。质量浓度为2?205微克，可直接在大气气溶胶和 3.85至36.3μg/m3柴油气溶胶。

毕业设计外文翻译原文.

Optimum blank design of an automobile sub-frame Jong-Yop Kim a ,Naksoo Kim a,*,Man-Sung Huh b a Department of Mechanical Engineering,Sogang University,Shinsu-dong 1,Mapo-ku,Seoul 121-742,South Korea b Hwa-shin Corporation,Young-chun,Kyung-buk,770-140,South Korea Received 17July 1998 Abstract A roll-back method is proposed to predict the optimum initial blank shape in the sheet metal forming process.The method takes the difference between the ?nal deformed shape and the target contour shape into account.Based on the method,a computer program composed of a blank design module,an FE-analysis program and a mesh generation module is developed.The roll-back method is applied to the drawing of a square cup with the ˉange of uniform size around its periphery,to con?rm its validity.Good agreement is recognized between the numerical results and the published results for initial blank shape and thickness strain distribution.The optimum blank shapes for two parts of an automobile sub-frame are designed.Both the thickness distribution and the level of punch load are improved with the designed blank.Also,the method is applied to design the weld line in a tailor-welded blank.It is concluded that the roll-back method is an effective and convenient method for an optimum blank shape design.#2000Elsevier Science S.A.All rights reserved. Keywords:Blank design;Sheet metal forming;Finite element method;Roll-back method

土木外文翻译原文和译文

A convection-conduction model for analysis of the freeze-thaw conditions in the surrounding rock wall of a tunnel in permafrost regions Abstract Based on the analyses of fundamental meteorological and hydrogeological conditions at the site of a tunnel in the cold regions, a combined convection-conduction model for air flow in the tunnel and temperature field in the surrounding has been constructed. Using the model, the air temperature distribution in the Xiluoqi No. 2 Tunnel has been simulated numerically. The simulated results are in agreement with the data observed. Then, based on the in situ conditions of sir temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind force, hydrogeology and engineering geology, the air-temperature relationship between the temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall and the air temperature at the entry and exit of the tunnel has been obtained, and the freeze-thaw conditions at the Dabanshan Tunnel which is now under construction is predicted. Keywords: tunnel in cold regions, convective heat exchange and conduction, freeze-thaw. A number of highway and railway tunnels have been constructed in the permafrost regions and their neighboring areas in China. Since the hydrological and thermal conditions changed after a tunnel was excavated，the surrounding wall rock materials often froze, the frost heaving caused damage to the liner layers and seeping water froze into ice diamonds，which seriously interfered with the communication and transportation. Similar problems of the freezing damage in the tunnels also appeared in other countries like Russia, Norway and Japan .Hence it is urgent to predict the freeze-thaw conditions in the surrounding rock materials and provide a basis for the design，construction and

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外文翻译 原文 Foreign T rade o f China Material Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka 1.Introduction On December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing: ?In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44% ?In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1 ?In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2 ?In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province ?In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere 2.Evolution of China’s Trade Regime Equally remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a much

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文献出处：Thronson P. Toward Comprehensive Reform of America’s Emergency Law Regime [J]. University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, 2013, 46(2). 原文 TOWARD COMPREHENSIVE REFORM OF AMERICA’S EMERGENCY LAW REGIME Patrick A. Thronson Unbenownst to most Americans, the United States is presently under thirty presidentially declared states of emergency. They confer vast powers on the Executive Branch, including the ability to financially incapacitate any person or organization in the United States, seize control of the nation’s communications infrastructure, mobilize military forces, expand the permissible size of the military without congressional authorization, and extend tours of duty without consent from service personnel. Declared states of emergency may also activate Presidential Emergency Action Documents and other continuity-of-government procedures, which confer powers on the President—such as the unilateral suspension of habeas corpus—that appear fundamentally opposed to the American constitutional order.

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南京理工大学 毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 教学点：南京信息职业技术学院 专业：电子信息工程 姓名：陈洁 学号： 014910253034 外文出处：《 Pci System Architecture 》 (用外文写) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。 指导教师评语： 该生外文翻译没有基本的语法错误，用词准确，没 有重要误译，忠实原文；译文通顺，条理清楚，数量与 质量上达到了本科水平。 签名： 年月日 注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。

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英文翻译与英文原文.陈--

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外文翻译原文

204/JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING/AUGUST1999

JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING /AUGUST 1999/205 ends.The stress state in each cylindrical strip was determined from the total potential energy of a nonlinear arch model using the Rayleigh-Ritz method. It was emphasized that the membrane stresses in the com-pression region of the curved models were less than those predicted by linear theory and that there was an accompanying increase in ?ange resultant force.The maximum web bending stress was shown to occur at 0.20h from the compression ?ange for the simple support stiffness condition and 0.24h for the ?xed condition,where h is the height of the analytical panel.It was noted that 0.20h would be the optimum position for longitudinal stiffeners in curved girders,which is the same as for straight girders based on stability requirements.From the ?xed condition cases it was determined that there was no signi?cant change in the membrane stresses (from free to ?xed)but that there was a signi?cant effect on the web bend-ing stresses.Numerical results were generated for the reduc-tion in effective moment required to produce initial yield in the ?anges based on curvature and web slenderness for a panel aspect ratio of 1.0and a web-to-?ange area ratio of 2.0.From the results,a maximum reduction of about 13%was noted for a /R =0.167and about 8%for a /R =0.10(h /t w =150),both of which would correspond to extreme curvature,where a is the length of the analytical panel (modeling the distance be-tween transverse stiffeners)and R is the radius of curvature.To apply the parametric results to developing design criteria for practical curved girders,the de?ections and web bending stresses that would occur for girders with a curvature corre-sponding to the initial imperfection out-of-?atness limit of D /120was used.It was noted that,for a panel with an aspect ratio of 1.0,this would correspond to a curvature of a /R =0.067.The values of moment reduction using this approach were compared with those presented by Basler (Basler and Thurlimann 1961;Vincent 1969).Numerical results based on this limit were generated,and the following web-slenderness requirement was derived: 2 D 36,500a a =1?8.6?34 (1) ? ??? t R R F w ?y where D =unsupported distance between ?anges;and F y =yield stress in psi. An extension of this work was published a year later,when Culver et al.(1973)checked the accuracy of the isolated elas-tically supported cylindrical strips by treating the panel as a unit two-way shell rather than as individual strips.The ?ange/web boundaries were modeled as ?xed,and the boundaries at the transverse stiffeners were modeled as ?xed and simple.Longitudinal stiffeners were modeled with moments of inertias as multiples of the AASHO (Standard 1969)values for straight https://www.sodocs.net/doc/ce15883448.html,ing analytical results obtained for the slenderness required to limit the plate bending stresses in the curved panel to those of a ?at panel with the maximum allowed out-of-?atness (a /R =0.067)and with D /t w =330,the following equa-tion was developed for curved plate girder web slenderness with one longitudinal stiffener: D 46,000a a =1?2.9 ?2.2 (2) ? ? ? t R f R w ?b where the calculated bending stress,f b ,is in psi.It was further concluded that if longitudinal stiffeners are located in both the tension and compression regions,the reduction in D /t w will not be required.For the case of two stiffeners,web bending in both regions is reduced and the web slenderness could be de-signed as a straight girder panel.Eq.(1)is currently used in the ‘‘Load Factor Design’’portion of the Guide Speci?cations ,and (2)is used in the ‘‘Allowable Stress Design’’portion for girders stiffened with one longitudinal stiffener.This work was continued by Mariani et al.(1973),where the optimum trans-verse stiffener rigidity was determined analytically. During almost the same time,Abdel-Sayed (1973)studied the prebuckling and elastic buckling behavior of curved web panels and proposed approximate conservative equations for estimating the critical load under pure normal loading (stress),pure shear,and combined normal and shear loading.The linear theory of shells was used.The panel was simply supported along all four edges with no torsional rigidity of the ?anges provided.The transverse stiffeners were therefore assumed to be rigid in their directions (no strains could be developed along the edges of the panels).The Galerkin method was used to solve the governing differential equations,and minimum eigenvalues of the critical load were calculated and presented for a wide range of loading conditions (bedding,shear,and combined),aspect ratios,and curvatures.For all cases,it was demonstrated that the critical load is higher for curved panels over the comparable ?at panel and increases with an increase in curvature. In 1980,Daniels et al.summarized the Lehigh University ?ve-year experimental research program on the fatigue behav-ior of horizontally curved bridges and concluded that the slen-derness limits suggested by Culver were too severe.Equations for ‘‘Load Factor Design’’and for ‘‘Allowable Stress Design’’were developed (respectively)as D 36,500a =1?4?192(3)? ?t R F w ?y D 23,000a =1?4 ?170 (4) ? ? t R f w ?b The latter equation is currently used in the ‘‘Allowable Stress Design’’portion of the Guide Speci?cations for girders not stiffened longitudinally. Numerous analytical and experimental works on the subject have also been published by Japanese researchers since the end of the CURT project.Mikami and colleagues presented work in Japanese journals (Mikami et al.1980;Mikami and Furunishi 1981)and later in the ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanics (Mikami and Furunishi 1984)on the nonlinear be-havior of cylindrical web panels under bending and combined bending and shear.They analyzed the cylindrical panels based on Washizu’s (1975)nonlinear theory of shells.The governing nonlinear differential equations were solved numerically by the ?nite-difference method.Simple support boundary condi-tions were assumed along the curved boundaries (top and bot-tom at the ?ange locations)and both simple and ?xed support conditions were used at the straight (vertical)boundaries.The large displacement behavior was demonstrated by Mi-kami and Furunishi for a range of geometric properties.Nu-merical values of the load,de?ection,membrane stress,bend-ing stress,and torsional stress were obtained,but no equations for design use were presented.Signi?cant conclusions include that:(1)the compressive membrane stress in the circumfer-ential direction decreases with an increase in curvature;(2)the panel under combined bending and shear exhibits a lower level of the circumferential membrane stress as compared with the panel under pure bending,and as a result,the bending moment carried by the web panel is reduced;and (3)the plate bending stress under combined bending and shear is larger than that under pure bending.No formulations or recommendations for direct design use were made. Kuranishi and Hiwatashi (1981,1983)used the ?nite-ele-ment method to demonstrate the elastic ?nite displacement be-havior of curved I-girder webs under bending using models with and without ?ange rigidities.Rotation was not allowed (?xed condition)about the vertical axis at the ends of the panel (transverse stiffener locations).Again,the nonlinear distribu-

污水处理外文翻译(带原文)

提高塔式复合人工湿地处理农村生活污水的 脱氮效率1 摘要： 努力保护水源，尤其是在乡镇地区的饮用水源，是中国污水处理当前面临的主要问题。氮元素在水体富营养化和对水生物的潜在毒害方面的重要作用，目前废水脱氮已成为首要关注的焦点。人工湿地作为一种小型的，处理费用较低的方法被用于处理乡镇生活污水。比起活性炭在脱氮方面显示出的广阔前景，人工湿地系统由于溶解氧的缺乏而在脱氮方面存在一定的制约。为了提高脱氮效率，一种新型三阶段塔式混合湿地结构----人工湿地（thcw）应运而生。它的第一部分和第三部分是水平流矩形湿地结构，第二部分分三层，呈圆形，呈紊流状态。塔式结构中水流由顶层进入第二层及底层，形成瀑布溢流，因此水中溶解氧浓度增加，从而提高了硝化反应效率，反硝化效率也由于有另外的有机物的加入而得到了改善，增加反硝化速率的另一个原因是直接通过旁路进入第二部分的废水中带入的足量有机物。常绿植物池柏（Taxodium ascendens），经济作物蔺草（Schoenoplectus trigueter），野茭白（Zizania aquatica），有装饰性的多花植物睡莲（Nymphaea tetragona），香蒲（Typha angustifolia）被种植在湿地中。该系统对总悬浮物、化学需氧量、氨氮、总氮和总磷的去除率分别为89%、85%、83%、83% 和64%。高水力负荷和低水力负荷（16 cm/d 和32 cm/d）对于塔式复合人工湿地结构的性能没有显著的影响。通过硝化活性和硝化速率的测定，发现硝化和反硝化是湿地脱氮的主要机理。塔式复合人工湿地结构同样具有观赏的价值。 关键词： 人工湿地；硝化作用；反硝化作用；生活污水；脱氮；硝化细菌；反硝化细菌 １. 前言 对于提高水源水质的广泛需求，尤其是提高饮用水水源水质的需求是目前废水深度处理的技术发展指向。在中国的乡镇地区，生活污水是直接排入湖泊、河流、土壤、海洋等水源中。这些缺乏处理的污水排放对于很多水库、湖泊不能达到水质标准是有责任的。许多位于中国的乡镇地区的社区缺乏足够的生活污水处理设备。由于山区地形、人口分散、经济基础差等原因，废水的收集和处理是很成问题的。由于资源短缺，经济欠发达地区所采取的废水处理技术必须低价高效，并且要便于施用，能量输入及维护费用较低，而且要保证出水能达标。建造在城市中基于活性污泥床的废水集中处理厂，对于小乡镇缺乏经济适用性，主要是由于污水收集结构的建造费用高。 1Ecological Engineering，Fen xia ，Ying Li。