土木 建筑 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 消防自动喷水灭火系统抗震设计

土木建筑外文翻译外文文献英文文献消防自动喷水灭火系统抗震设计

The Evolution of Seismic Design of Fire

Sprinkler Systems

Russell P. Fleming, P.E.

Executive Vice President

National Fire Sprinkler Association Patterson, NY

Special fire sprinkler system installation guidance intended to guard against damage due to earthquakes first appeared in the North American sprinkler installation standard in 1947, and was largely based on experience in the Long Beach earthquake of 1930. At that time many building codes in use in the United States did not even address the subject of earthquakes. Insurance reports of the Long Beach earthquake had indicated 90 damaged sprinkler systems. The first guidance, contained only in the appendix, called for 1 to 2 inches clearance around pipes, flexible couplings in risers and “some form of lateral and longitudinal bracing” for feed and cross mains.

In the 1951 edition requirements were placed in the body of the standard for placement of longitudinal and lateral braces with spacing indicated as “30 to 40 ft”, a maximum slenderness ratio of brace members of 200, and flexible couplings on risers where it was necessary to protect systems against earthquakes. The stated intent was to laterally brace

for 50% of weight of water-filled piping and attachments.

In the decades since then deliberate efforts have been made to clarify the rules and

improve protection within the text of NFPA 13 –Installation of Sprinkler Systems, but

always with the intent of addressing “how” systems are to be protected against earthquakes, not “where” such protection is to be provided. It was recognized that

building codes and other authorities made the

basic decisions with regard to the location

of earthquake-prone areas.

Although the earliest guidance contained in NFPA 13 came from the insurance industry

in the western states, the NFPA Committee on Automatic Sprinklers formed an

Earthquake Protection Subcommittee in 1985. One of the goals of this subcommittee was

to develop a means to address the bracing of sprinkler systems in the same manner that

the application of system hydraulics had been accomplished. Although a complex

subject, it was believed that many of the design aspects could be pre-engineered into

tables and then properly applied by the technicians who normally lay out and detail fire sprinkler systems. The 1983 standard contained no information on the sizing or fastening

of bracing relative to loads. A method was proposed in 1984 whereby “zones of influence” could be evaluated to determine total

loads for proposed brace locations.

Tables were proposed for determining maximum brace loads and allowable fastener loads

based on six different combinations of brace and fastener orientation and angle from

vertical.

This concept and the accompanying tables were accepted into the appendix of

the standard in the 1987 edition, and in the 1989 edition the tables were expanded to nine combinations of orientation and angle and moved into the body of the standard.

2007 Structures Congress: New Horizons and Better Practices ? 2007 ASCE

Copyright ASCE 2007 Structures Congress 2007 Downloaded 06 Mar 2009 to 202.118.74.100. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e4102057.html,The NFPA 13 Earthquake Protection Subcommittee was in place at the time of the Loma

Prieta and Northridge earthquakes in 1989 and 1994, and held public hearings in

cooperation with the National Fire Sprinkler Association and the Society of Fire

Protection Engineers following those events in order to evaluate how fire sprinkler

systems performed during the earthquakes ands to develop suggestions for improvements

to the protection criteria within the standard.

In general, the performance of fire sprinkler systems in those earthquakes was judged to be good, with a strong correlationbetween observed failures and departures from the rules of NFPA 13. One area acknowledged to be in need of improvement was the interaction of sprinklers and ceilings; impact of sprinklers against rigid ceilings resulted in a several high-profile incidents in which a number of sprinklers opened and water damage resulted. In 1999 the NFPA sprinkler project was reorganized. Responsibilities for the earthquake protection rules were given to a new NFPA Technical

Committee on Hanging and Bracing of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems, one of four separate technical committees coordinated through a Technical Correlating Committee responsible for NFPA 13. This allowed the direct input of more earthquake engineering expertise into the standard development process.

Major changes in building code requirements for earthquake protection have taken place in the past twenty years, mainly due to the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) provisions developed with funding from the Federal Emergency Management Agency.The NEHRP provisions initially found their way into the codes

through direct adoption, and more recently through reference to the American Society of Civil Engineer’s standard ASCE/SEI 7. As a result, the goal of the committee that prepares NFPA 13 has evolved during the years. From the original goal of independently providing a means of protecting sprinkler systems against

earthquake forces, the committee in recent years has been trying to keep pace with a moving target as successive editions of ASCE/SEI 7 address protection of architectural and mechanical systems.

There is a difficult transition period taking place right now involving the seismic provisions of NFPA 13 and the 2003 edition of the International Building Code? (IBC). Because of the reference to ASCE/SEI 7, the 2003 IBC does not contain the detailed seismic requirements that had been included in the 2000 edition of the IBC. Although general reference to the 1999 edition of NFPA 13 is contained in the 2003 IBC, a section of ASCE/SEI 7 that made special reference to the use of NFPA 13 for earthquake

protection was omitted during the adoption process, leading some to believe that

sprinkler piping must be protected the same as other mechanical piping. However,

sprinkler system piping is not arranged like

other mechanical piping systems, and some

of the rules of NFPA 13 have been specifically developed to prevent system damage

during earthquake movement. For example, while most mechanical piping supported by hanger rods less than 12 in. (400 mm) in length is exempt from bracing under current

codes, comparative experience of sprinkler systems with that exemption versus the NFPA exemption of only 6 in (150 m) was provided by the 1987 New Zealand earthquake. The

2007 Structures Congress: New Horizons and Better Practices ? 2007 ASCE

Copyright ASCE 2007 Structures Congress 2007 Downloaded 06 Mar 2009 to 202.118.74.100. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e4102057.html,general conclusion was that systems installed in accordance with NFPA 13 withstood the

earthquake, while those not so designed failed.

Over the past two decades there have been a numerous refinements in the language of

NFPA 13 that reflect the lessons learned in earthquakes as well as the influence of the NEHRP provisions. These can be evaluated by looking at how the various sections of

NFPA 13 have evolved in twenty key areas:

1. Applicability of NFPA 13 Earthquake Protection Provisions

1983 - Where subject to earthquakes

1996 - When sprinkler systems…are to be protected against damage from earthquakes

1999 - Where sprinkler systems or aboveground fire service mains are required to be

protected against damage from earthquakes

2002 - Where water-based fire protection

systems are required to be protected against damage from earthquakes

2. General Intent of Earthquake Protection Provisions

1983 - Minimize or prevent pipe breakage

1991 - Prevent pipe breakage

1999 - Protect against damage

3. Flexible Couplings - General

1983 - For piping 3? in. or larger

1994 - For piping 2? in. or larger; “Flexible listed pipe coupling” defined as “a listed coupling or fitting that allows axial displacement, rotation, and at least 1 degree

of angular movement of the pipe without inducing harm on the pipe” (minimum

0.5 degrees for 8-in. and larger)

2007 - Flexible couplings and clearance identified as addressing displacement due to story drift

4. Flexible Couplings for Risers in Multi-Story Buildings

1983 - At ceiling of each intermediate floor

1994 - Within 12 in. above and below the floor in multistory buildings such that the

flexible coupling below the floor is below the main supplying that floor

2007 Structures Congress: New Horizons and Better Practices ? 2007 ASCE

Copyright ASCE 2007 Structures Congress 2007 Downloaded 06 Mar 2009 to 202.118.74.100. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e4102057.html,

1999 - Within 12 in. above and within 24 in.

below the floor in multistory buildings; Additional coupling required on vertical portion of tie-in piping where tie-in is

below the upper flexible coupling on the riser

2007 - Additional flexible coupling can be provided either on the vertical portion of tie-in piping or within 24 in. on horizontal tie-in piping

5. Drops to Hose Lines, Sprinklers in Racks, and Portions of Systems

1983 - Fittings with flexible joints at the top of drops to hose lines (regardless of size);

Swing joints assembled with flexible fittings on drops to racks over 3 in.

1987 - Flexible couplings at the top of drops to hose lines (regardless of size); Swing

joints with flexible fittings on drops to racks (regardless of size)

1989 - Flexible coupling at the top of drops to hose lines, rack sprinklers and mezzanines (regardless of size); Flexible coupling at the top of drops exceeding 15 ft. to

sprinklers or portions of systems (regardless of size)

1991 - Flexible coupling within 24 in. of the ceiling at top of drops to hose lines, rack sprinklers and mezzanines (regardless of size); Flexible coupling within 24 in. of

the ceiling at top of drops exceeding 15 ft. to portions of systems supplying more

than one sprinkler (regardless of size)

1994 - Deleted “of the ceiling”

1996 - Added “at top and bottom” of drops supplying hose lines, rack sprinklers and mezzanines

2007 –Additional flexible couplings for drops required within n 24 in. above the

uppermost drop support or, where no drop support is provided, within 24 in.

above the bottom of the drop

6. Flexible Couplings for Expansion Joints 1983 - On one side of building expansion joints

1987 - At or near building expansion joints; Seismic separation assembly needed for seismic separation joints

1999 – Within 24 in. of building expansion joints 7. Seismic Separation Assemblies

2007 Structures Congress: New Horizons and Better Practices ? 2007 ASCE

Copyright ASCE 2007 Structures Congress 2007 Downloaded 06 Mar 2009 to 202.118.74.100.

Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e4102057.html,1987 - Swing joints assembled with flexible fittings required where piping crosses

seismic joints; Figure added to appendix

1989 - Added “regardless of size”

1991 - Designated as “seismic separation assemblies with flexible fittings”; Added applicability only “above ground level”

2007 –Expanded to “flexible fittings or flexible hose” and specified minimum capability

of allowing movement to accommodate closing of the separation, opening of

separation to twice normal size, and movement relative to the separation in the

other two dimensions in an amount equal to the separation distance

8. Clearances

1983 - Clearance through walls, floors, platforms and foundations 1 in. all sides through 3?-in pipe, 2 in. all sides 4-inch and larger; Exception added to permit pipe

sleeves of nominal diameter 2 in. larger through 3?-in. pipe (4 in. larger for 4-

inch and larger pipe); Another exception added for pipe passing through gypsum

board or equally frangible construction not required to have a fire-resistance

rating

1985 - Flexible joints permitted to substitute for clearance for pipe entering a basement

wall with ground water conditions

1987 - Flexible couplings or swing joints within one foot of both sides permitted to

substitute for clearance in any wall

1994 - Flexible coupling within 1 ft. of each side

accepted as alternative for walls,

platforms and foundations

2002 - Clearance dimensions to be considered nominal; Clearance not required for horizontal piping passing perpendicularly through successive studs or joists that

form a wall/ceiling assembly; Clearance not required for nonmetallic pipe having

flexibility equal to flexible couplings within 1 ft. of both sides.

9. Sway Bracing - General

1983 - Piping to be tied to the structure for minimum relative movement, but allowing for expansion, and differential movement within and between structures; Tops of

risers secured against drifting in any direction using 4-way brace

1987 –Zone of influence method added to

appendix with maximum load tables for pipe, angles, rods and flats based on three ranges of angle from vertical and maximum slenderness ratio of 200

2007 Structures Congress: New Horizons and Better Practices ? 2007 ASCE

Copyright ASCE 2007 Structures Congress 2007 Downloaded 06 Mar 2009 to 202.118.74.100. Redistribution subject to ASCE license or copyright; see https://www.sodocs.net/doc/e4102057.html,1989 –Table for maximum brace loads moved to body of standard

1994 - System piping to be supported to resist both lateral and longitudinal horizontal

loads

1996 - System piping to be supported to resist both lateral and longitudinal horizontal

loads and vertical loads; Each run of pipe between a change in direction to be

provided with both lateral and longitudinal bracing; Exception for runs less than

12 ft. in length supported by braces on adjacent runs; Tension-only bracing

allowed if listed for the application

2002 - Clarification that 4-way bracing is required at the tops of risers exceeding 3 ft in length; Maximum vertical distance between 4-way braces limited to 25 ft

2007 - Braces and restraints identified as possible obstructions to sprinkler discharge

10. Sway Bracing - Loads

1983 - Sway bracing to withstand a force in tension or compression equivalent to not less than half the weight of water-filled piping

1989 - Assigned load table added. Alternative permitted for zone of influence method:

土木工程类专业英文文献及翻译

PA VEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED BY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADES By Sandra L. Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE (Reviewed by the Highway Division) ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com- mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation. Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils. A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented. Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used. INTRODUCTION When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume, increase in volume, or do nothing. A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil. The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting. Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be- ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs. The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing with these problem subgrade materials. Each project will have different design considerations, economic con- straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account. However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made. For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include: (1) In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash; (2) seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems; or (3) a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod- ification of the design to "accept" the anticipated expansion. In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change (especially non- uniform volume change) must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data. Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem. The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple methods for: (1) Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible; and (2) estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst. Prof., Ctr. for Advanced Res. in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287. Note. Discussion open until April 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one month,

英文文献翻译

中等分辨率制备分离的 快速色谱技术 W. Clark Still,* Michael K a h n , and Abhijit Mitra Departm(7nt o/ Chemistry, Columbia Uniuersity,1Veu York, Neu; York 10027 ReceiLied January 26, 1978 我们希望找到一种简单的吸附色谱技术用于有机化合物的常规净化。这种技术是适于传统的有机物大规模制备分离，该技术需使用长柱色谱法。尽管这种技术得到的效果非常好，但是其需要消耗大量的时间，并且由于频带拖尾经常出现低复原率。当分离的样本剂量大于1或者2g时，这些问题显得更加突出。近年来，几种制备系统已经进行了改进，能将分离时间减少到1-3h，并允许各成分的分辨率ΔR f≥（使用薄层色谱分析进行分析）。在这些方法中，在我们的实验室中，媒介压力色谱法1和短柱色谱法2是最成功的。最近，我们发现一种可以将分离速度大幅度提升的技术，可用于反应产物的常规提纯，我们将这种技术称为急骤色谱法。虽然这种技术的分辨率只是中等（ΔR f≥），而且构建这个系统花费非常低，并且能在10-15min内分离重量在的样本。4 急骤色谱法是以空气压力驱动的混合介质压力以及短柱色谱法为基础，专门针对快速分离，介质压力以及短柱色谱已经进行了优化。优化实验是在一组标准条件5下进行的，优化实验使用苯甲醇作为样本，放在一个20mm*5in.的硅胶柱60内，使用Tracor 970紫外检测器监测圆柱的输出。分辨率通过持续时间（r）和峰宽（w,w/2）的比率进行测定的（Figure 1），结果如图2-4所示，图2-4分别放映分辨率随着硅胶颗粒大小、洗脱液流速和样本大小的变化。

土木工程外文翻译

转型衰退时期的土木工程研究 Sergios Lambropoulosa[1], John-Paris Pantouvakisb, Marina Marinellic 摘要 最近的全球经济和金融危机导致许多国家的经济陷入衰退，特别是在欧盟的周边。这些国家目前面临的民用建筑基础设施的公共投资和私人投资显著收缩，导致在民事特别是在民用建筑方向的失业。因此，在所有国家在经济衰退的专业发展对于土木工程应届毕业生来说是努力和资历的不相称的研究，因为他们很少有机会在实践中积累经验和知识，这些逐渐成为过时的经验和知识。在这种情况下，对于技术性大学在国家经济衰退的计划和实施的土木工程研究大纲的一个实质性的改革势在必行。目的是使毕业生拓宽他们的专业活动的范围，提高他们的就业能力。 在本文中，提出了土木工程研究课程的不断扩大，特别是在发展的光毕业生的潜在的项目，计划和投资组合管理。在这个方向上，一个全面的文献回顾，包括ASCE体为第二十一世纪，IPMA的能力的基础知识，建议在其他：显著增加所提供的模块和项目管理在战略管理中添加新的模块，领导行为，配送管理，组织和环境等；提供足够的专业训练五年的大学的研究；并由专业机构促进应届大学生认证。建议通过改革教学大纲为土木工程研究目前由国家技术提供了例证雅典大学。 1引言 土木工程研究（CES）蓬勃发展，是在第二次世界大战后。土木工程师的出现最初是由重建被摧毁的巨大需求所致，目的是更多和更好的社会追求。但是很快，这种演变一个长期的趋势，因为政府为了努力实现经济发展，采取了全世界的凯恩斯主义的理论，即公共基础设施投资作为动力。首先积极的结果导致公民为了更好的生活条件（住房，旅游等）和增加私人投资基础设施而创造机会。这些现象再国家的发展中尤为为明显。虽然前景并不明朗（例如，世界石油危机在70年代），在80年代领先的国家采用新自由主义经济的方法（如里根经济政策），这是最近的金融危机及金融危机造成的后果（即收缩的基础设施投资，在技术部门的高失业率），消除发展前途无限的误区。 技术教育的大学所认可的大量研究土木工程部。旧学校拓展专业并且新的学校建成，并招收许多学生。由于高的职业声望，薪酬，吸引高质量的学校的学生。在工程量的增加和科学技术的发展，导致到极强的专业性，无论是在研究还是工作当中。结构工程师，液压工程师，交通工程师等，都属于土木工程。试图在不同的国家采用专业性的权利，不同的解决方案，，从一个统一的大学学历和广泛的专业化的一般职业许可证。这个问题在许多其他行业成为关键。国际专业协会的专家和机构所确定的国家性检查机构，经过考试后，他们证明不仅是行业的新来者，而且专家通过时间来确定进展情况。尽管在很多情况下，这些证书虽然没有国家接受，他们赞赏和公认的世界。 在试图改革大学研究（不仅在土木工程）更接近市场需求的过程中，欧盟确定了1999博洛尼亚宣言，它引入了一个二能级系统。第一级度（例如，一个三年的学士）是进入

零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献

零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)

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附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并

不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。

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文献出处: Dalman, M. Deniz, and Junhong Min. "Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect." International Journal of Marketing Studies 6.5 (2014): 63-72. 原文 Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect Dalman, M. Deniz & Junhong Min Abstract This research investigates that brand differentiation creating superior values can be achieved not only by adding meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes, which is called "trivial attribute effect." Two studies provided empirical evidences as following; first, trivial attribute effect creates a strong brand differentiation even after subjects realize that trivial attribute has no value. Second, trivial attribute effect is more pronounced in hedonic service category compared to the utilitarian category. Last, the amount of willingness to pay is higher when trivial attribute is presented and evaluated in joint evaluation mode than separate evaluation mode. Finally, we conclude with discussion and provide suggestions for further research. Keywords: brand differentiation, evaluation mode, service industry, trivial attribute Introduction Problem Definition Perhaps the most important factor for new product success is to create the meaningful brand differentiation that provides customers with superior values beyond what the competitors can offer in the same industry (Porter, 1985). Not surprisingly, more than 50 percent of annual sales in consumer product industries including automobiles, biotechnology, computer software, and pharmaceuticals are attributed to such meaningful brand differentiation by including new or noble attributes (Schilling &Hill, 1998). However, the brand differentiation that increases consumer preference is not only by introducing meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes. For