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英语(一)、英语(二)——大学英语自学教程(上册)——电子版教材

大学英语自学教程(上)

01-A. How to be a successful language learner?

―Learning a language is easy, even a child can do it!‖

Most adults who are learning a second language would disagree with this statement. For them, learning a language is a very difficult task. They need hundreds of hours of study and practice, and even this will not guarantee success for every adult language learner.

Language learning is different from other kinds of learning. Some people who are very intelligent and successful in their fields find it difficult to succeed in language learning. Conversely, some people who

are successful language learners find it difficult to succeed in other fields.

“Read as Language teachers often offer advice to language learners:

much as you can in the new language.”“Practice speaking the language every day. ”“Live with people who speak the language.”“Don‘t translate-try to think in the new language.”“Learn as a child would learn; play with the language.”

But what does a successful language learner do? Language learning research shows that successful language learners are similar in many ways.

First of all, successful language learners are independent learners. They do not depend on the book or the teacher; they discover their own

way to learn the language. Instead of waiting for the teacher to explain,

they try to find the patterns and the rules for themselves. They are good guessers who look for clues and form their own conclusions. When they guess wrong, they guess again. They try to learn from their mistakes.

Successful language learning is active learning. Therefore, successful learners do not wait for a chance to use the language; they look for such a chance. They find people who speak the language and they ask these people to correct them when they make a mistake. They will try anything to communicate. They are not afraid to repeat what they hear or

to say strange things; they are willing to make mistakes and try again.

When communication is difficult, they can accept information that is

inexact or incomplete. It is more important for them to learn to think in

the language than to know the meaning of every word.

Finally, successful language learners are learners with a purpose.

They want to learn the language because they are interested in the

language and the people who speak it. It is necessary for them to learn the

language in order to communicate with these people and to learn from

them. They find it easy to practice using the language regularly because

they want to learn with it.

What kind of language learner are you? If you are a successful

language learner, you have probably been learning independently, actively,

and purposefully. On the other hand, if your language learning has been

less than successful, you might do well to try some of the techniques

outlined above.

01-B. Language

When we want to tell other people what we think, we can do it not

only with the help of words, but also in many other ways. For instance,

we sometimes move our heads up and down when we want to say "yes‖　and we move our heads from side to side when we want to say "no."

People who can neither hear nor speak (that is, deaf and dumb people)

talk to each other with the help of their fingers. People who do not

understand each other's language have to do the same. The following

story shows how they sometimes do it.

An Englishman who could not speak Italian was once traveling in

Italy. One day he entered a restaurant and sat down at a table. When the

waiter came, the Englishman opened his mouth, put his fingers in it, took

them out again and moved his lips. In this way he meant to say, "Bring

me something to eat." The waiter soon brought him a cup of tea. The

Englishman shook his head and the waiter understood that he didn't want

tea, so he took it away and brought him some coffee. The Englishman,

who was very hungry by this time and not at all thirsty, looked very sad.

He shook his head each time the waiter brought him something to drink.

The waiter brought him wine, then beer, then soda-water, but that wasn‘t food, of course. He was just going to leave the restaurant when another traveler came in. When this man saw the waiter, he put his hands on his stomach. That was enough: in a few minutes there was a large plate of macaroni and meat on the table before him.

As you see, the primitive language of signs is not always very clear.

The language of words is much more exact.

Words consist of sounds, but there are many sounds which have a meaning and yet are not words. For example, we may say "Sh-sh-sh‖　when we mean "keep silent.‖　

When babies laugh, we know they are happy, and when they cry, we know they are ill or simply want something.

It is the same with animals. When a dog says ―Ｇ

-r-r‖ or a cat says

"F-f-f‖ we know they are angry.

But these sounds are not language. Language consists of words

which we put together into sentences. But animals can not do this: a dog -r-r‖ when he means "I am angry,‖ but he cannot say first "I can say ―Ｇ

A parrot can talk like a man; it can

and then "am‖　a nd then "angry.‖　

repeat whole sentences a nd knows what they mean. We may say that a

parrot talks, but cannot say that it really speaks, because it cannot form

new sentences out of the words it knows. Only man has the power to do

this.

02-A. Taxes, Taxes, and More Taxes

Americans often say that there are only two things a person can be

sure of in life: death and taxes, Americans do not have a corner on the "death" market, but many people feel that the United States leads the

world with the worst taxes.

Taxes consist of the money which people pay to support their government. There are generally three levels of government in the United States: federal, state, and city; therefore, there are three types of taxes.

Salaried people who earn more than a few thousand dollars must pay

a certain percentage of their salaries to the federal government. The percentage varies from person to person. It depends on their salaries. The federal government has a graduated income tax, that is, the percentage of the tax (14 to 70 percent) increases as a person's income increases. With the high cost of taxes, people are not very happy on April 15, when the federal taxes are due.

The second tax is for the state government: New York, California, North Dakota, or any of the other forty-seven states. Some states have an income tax similar to that of the federal government. Of course, the percentage for the state tax is lower. Other states have a sales tax, which is a percentage charged to any item which you buy in that state. For example, a person might want to buy a packet of cigarettes for twenty-five cents. If there is a sales tax of eight percent in that state, then the cost of the cigarettes is twenty-seven cents. This figure includes the sales tax. Some states use income tax in addition to sales tax to raise their revenues. The state tax laws are diverse and confusing.

The third tax is for the city. This tax comes in two forms: property

tax (people who own a home have to pay taxes on it) and excise tax, which is charged on cars in a city. The cities use these funds for education, police and fire departments, public works and municipal buildings.

Since Americans pay such high taxes, they often feel that they are working one day each week just to pay their taxes. People always complain about taxes. They often protest that the government uses their tax dollars in the wrong way. They say that it spends too much on useless and impractical programs. Although Americans have different views on many issues, they tend to agree on one subject: taxes are too high.

02-B. Advertising

Advertising is only part of the total sales effort, but it is the part that attracts the most attention. This is natural enough because advertising is designed for just that purpose. In newspapers, in magazines, in the mail, on radio and television, we constantly see and hear the messages f or hundreds of different products and services. For the most part, they are the kinds of things that we can be persuaded to buy – food and drinks,

cars and television sets, furniture and clothing, travel and leisure time activities.

The simplest kind of advertising is the classified ad. Every day the newspapers carry a few pages of these ads; in the large Sunday editions there may be several sections of them. A classified ad is usually only a

few lines long. It is really a notice or announcement t hat something is available.

Newspapers also carry a large amount of display advertising. Most

of it is for stores or for various forms of entertainment. Newspapers generally reach an audience only in a limited area. To bring their message to a larger audience, many who want to put out their ads use national magazines. Many of the techniques of modern advertising were developed in magazine ads. The use of bright colors, attractive pictures, and short messages is all characteristic of magazine ads. The most important purpose is to catch the eye. The message itself is usually short, often no more than a slogan which the public identifies with the product.

The same techniques have been carried over into television advertising. Voices and music have been added to color and pictures to catch the ear as well as the eye. Television ads are short –usually only 15,30, or 60 seconds, but they are repeated over and over again so that the audience sees and hears them many times. Commercial television has mixed entertainment and advertising. If you want the entertainment, you have to put up with the advertising-and millions of people want the entertainment.

The men and women in the sales department are responsible for the company‘s advertising, They must decide on the audience they want to reach. They must also decide on the best way to get their message to their particular audience. They also make an estimate of the costs before management approves the plan. In most large companies management is directly involved in planning the advertising.

03-A. The Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean is one of the oceans that separate the Old World

from the New. For centuries it kept the Americas from being discovered

by the people of Europe.

Many wrong ideas about the Atlantic made early sailors unwilling to sail far out into it. One idea was that it reached out to "the edge of the world." Sailors were afraid that they might sail right off the earth. Another idea was that at the equator the ocean would be boiling hot.

The Atlantic Ocean is only half as big as the Pacific, but it is still

very large. It is more than 4,000 miles (6,000 km) wide where Columbus crossed it. Even at its narrowest it is about 2, 000 miles (3,200 km) wide. This narrowest place is between the bulge of south America and the bulge of Africa.

Two things make the Atlantic Ocean rather unusual. For so large an ocean it has very few islands. Also, it is the world's saltiest ocean.

There is so much water in the Atlantic that it is hard to imagine how much there is. But suppose no more rain fell into it and no more water

was brought to it by rivers. It would take the ocean about 4,000 years to

dry up. On the average the water is a little more than two miles (3.2 km) deep, but in places it is much deeper. The deepest spot is near Puerto Rico. This "deep" 30, 246 feet - almost six miles (9.6 km).

One of the longest mountain ranges of the world rises the floor of

the Atlantic. This mountain range runs north and south down the middle

of the ocean. The tops of a few of the mountains reach up above the sea and make islands. The Azores are the tops of peaks in the mid-Atlantic mountain range.

Several hundred miles eastward from Florida there is a part of the ocean called the Sargasso Sea. Here the water is quiet, for there is little wind. In the days of sailing vessels the crew were afraid they would be becalmed here. Sometimes they were.

Ocean currents are sometime called "rivers in the sea." One of these "river" in the Atlantic is called the Gulf Stream. It is a current of warm water. Another is the Labrador Current - cold water coming down from the Arctic. Ocean currents affect the climates of the lands near which they flow.

The Atlantic furnishes much food for the people on its shores. One

of its most famous fishing regions, the Grand Banks, is near

Newfoundland.

Today the Atlantic is a great highway. It is not, however, always a smooth and safe one. Storms sweep across it and pile up great waves. Icebergs float down from the Far North across the paths of ships.

We now have such fast ways of traveling that this big ocean seems to have grown smaller. Columbus sailed for more than two months to cross it. A fast modern steamship can make the trip in less than four days. Airplanes fly from New York to London in only eight hours and from South America to Africa in four!

03-B. The Moon

We find that the moon is about 239,000 miles (384,551km) away from the earth, and, to within a few thousand miles, its distance always remains the same. Yet a very little observation shows that the moon is not standing still. Its distance from the earth remains the same, but its direction continually changes. We find that it is traveling in a circle - or very nearly a circle - round the earth, going completely round once a month, or, more exactly, once every 27 1/3 days. It is our nearest neighbour in space, and like ourselves it is kept tied to the earth by the earth's gravitational pull.

Except for the sun, the moon looks the biggest object in the sky. Actually it is one of the smallest, and only looks big because it is so near to us. Its diameter is only 2, 160 miles (3,389 km), or a little more than a quarter of the diameter of the earth.

Once a month, or, more exactly, once every 29 1/2 days, at the time we call "full moon," its whole disc looks bright. At other times only part

of it appears bright, and we always find that this is the part which faces towards the sun, while the part facing away from the sun appears dark. Artists could make their pictures better if they kept in mind -- only those parts of the moon which are lighted up by the sun are bright. This shows that the moon gives no light of its own. It merely reflects the light of the sun, like a huge mirror hung in the sky.

Yet the dark part of the moon‘s surface is not absolutely black;

generally it is just light enough for us to be able to see its outline, so that we speak of seeing "the old moon in the new moon's arms." The light by which we see the old moon does not come from the sun, but from the earth. we knows well how the surface of the sea or of snow, or even of a wet road, may reflect uncomfortably much of the sun's light on to our faces. In the same way the surface of the whole earth reflects enough of the sun's light on to the face of the moon for us to be able to see the parts of it which would otherwise be dark.

If there were any inhabitants of the moon, they would see our earth reflecting the light of the sun, again like a huge mirror hung in the sky. They would speak of earthlight just as we speak of moonlight. "The old moon in the new moon's arms" is nothing but that part of the moon's surface on which it is night, lighted up by earth light. In the same way, the lunar inhabitants would occasionally see part of our earth in full sunlight, and the rest lighted only by moonlight; they might call this "the old earth in the new earth's arms.‖

04-A. Improving Your Memory

Psychological research has focused on a number of basic principles that help memory: meaningfulness, organization, association, and visualization. It is useful to know how these principles work.

Meaningfulness affects memory at all levels. Information that does not make any sense to you is difficult to remember. There are several ways in which we can make material more meaningful. Many people, for instance, learn a rhyme to help them remember. Do you know the rhyme ―Thirty d ays has September, A pril, June, and November…? ‖　I t helps many people remember which months of the year have 30 days.

Organization also makes a difference in our ability to remember. How useful would a library be if the books were kept in random order? Material that is organized is better remembered than jumbled information. One example of organization is chunking. Chunking consists of grouping separate bits of information. For example, the number 4671363 is more easily remembered if it is chunked as 467,13,63. Categorizing is another means of organization. Suppose you are asked to remember the following

list of words: man, bench, dog, desk, woman, horse, child, cat, chair. Many people will group the words into similar categories and remember them as follows: man, woman, child; cat, dog, horse; bench, chair, desk. Needless to say, the second list can be remembered more easily than the first one.

Association refers to taking the material we want to remember and relating it to something we remember accurately. In memorizing a number, you might try to associate it with familiar numbers or events. For example, the height of Mount Fuji in Japan - 12, 389 feet - might be remembered using the following associations: 12 is the number of months in the year, and 389 is the number of days in a year(365) added to the number of months twice (24).

The last principle is visualization. Research has shown striking improvements in many types of memory tasks when people are asked to visualize the items to be remembered. In one study, subjects in one group were asked to learn some words using imagery, while the second group used repetition to learn the words. Those using imagery remembered 80

to 90 percent of the words, compared with 30 to 40 percent of the words for those who memorized by repetition. Thus forming an integrated image with all the information placed in a single mental picture can help

us to preserve a memory.

04-B. Short-term Memory

There are two kinds of memory: shore-term and long-term. Information in long-term memory can be recalled at a later time when it

is needed. T he information may be kept for days or weeks. Sometimes information in the long-term memory is hard to remember. Students taking exam often have this experience. In contrast, information in shore-term memory is kept for only a few seconds, usually by repeating the information over and over. For example, you look up a number in the telephone book, and before you dial, you repeat the number over and over. If someone interrupts you, you will probably forget the number. In laboratory studies, subjects are unable to remember three letters after eighteen seconds if they are not allowed to repeat the letters to

themselves.

Psychologists study memory and learning with both animal and human subjects. The two experiments here show how short-term memory has been studied.

Dr. Hunter studied short-term memory in rats. He used a special apparatus which had a cage for the rat and three doors, There was a light in each door. First the rat was placed in the closed cage. Next, one of the lights was turned on and then off. There was food for the rat only at this door. After the light was turned off, the rat had to wait a short time before it was released from its cage. Then, if it went to the correct door, it was rewarded with the food that was there. Hunter did this experiment many times. He always turned on the lights in a random order. The rat had to wait different intervals before it was released from the cage. Hunter found that if the rat had to wait more than ten seconds, it could not remember the correct door. Hunter's results show that rats have a short-term memory of about ten seconds.

Later, Dr. Henning studied how students who are learning English as a second language remember vocabulary. The subjects in his experiment were 75 students at the University of California in Los Angeles. They represented all levels of ability in English; beginning, intermediate, advanced, and native-speaking students.

To begin, the subjects listened to a recording of a native speaker reading a paragraph in English. Following the recording, the subjects took a 15-question test to see which words they remembered. Each question had four choices. The subjects had to circle the word they had heard in the recording. Some of the questions had four choices that sound alike. For example, weather, whether, wither, and wetter are four words that sound alike. Some of the questions had four choices that have the same meaning. Method, way, manner, a nd system w ould be four words with the same meaning. Some of them had four unrelated choices. For instance, weather, method, love, a nd result could be used as four unrelated words. Finally the subjects took a language proficiency test.

Henning found that students with a lower proficiency in English made more of their mistakes on words that sound alike; students with a higher proficiency made more of their mistakes on words that have the

dents hold the same meaning. Henning‘s results suggest that beginning stu

sound of words in their short-term memory, while advanced students hold the meaning of words in their short-term memory.

05-A. Fallacies about Food

Many primitive peoples believed that by eating an animal they could get some of the good qualities of that animal for themselves. They thought, for example, that eating deer would make them run as fast as the deer. Some savage tribes believed that eating enemies that had shown bravery in battle would make them brave. Man-eating may have started because people were eager to become as strong and brave as their enemies.

Among civilized people it was once thought that ginger root by some magical power could improve the memory. Eggs were thought to make the voice pretty. Tomatoes also were believed to have magical powers. They were called love apples and were supposed to make people who ate them fall in love.

Later another wrong idea about tomatoes grew up - the idea that they were poisonous. How surprised the people who thought tomatoes poisonous would be if they could know that millions of pounds of tomatoes were supplied to soldiers overseas during World War II.

Even today there are a great many wrong ideas about food. Some of them are very widespread.

One such idea is that fish is the best brain food. Fish is good brain food just as it is good muscle food and skin food and bone food. But no one has been able to prove that fish is any better for the brain thanmany other kinds of food.

Another such idea is that you should not drink water with meals. Washing food down with water as a substitute for chewing is not a good idea, but some water with meals has been found to be helpful. It makes the digestive juices flow more freely and helps to digest the food.

Many of the ideas which scientists tell us have no foundation have to

do with mixtures of foods. A few years ago the belief became general that orange juice and milk should never be drunk at the same meal. The reason given was that the acid in the orange juice would make the milk curdle and become indigestible. As a matter of fact, milk always meets in the stomach a digestive juice which curdles it; the curdling of the milk is the first step in its digestion. A similar wrong idea is that fish and ice cream when eaten at the same meal form a poisonous combination.

Still another wrong idea about mixing foods is that proteins and carbohydrates should never be eaten at the same meal. Many people think of bread, for example, as a carbohydrate food. It is chiefly a carbohydrate food, but it also contains proteins. In the same way, milk, probably the best single food, contains both proteins and carbohydrates. I t is just as foolish to say that one should never eat meat and potatoes together as it is to say that one should never eat bread or drink milk.

05-B. Do Animals Think?

The question has often been asked, Do animals think? I believe that some of them think a great deal. Many of them are like children in their sports. We notice this to be true very often with dogs and cats; but it is true with other animals as well.

Some birds are very lively in their sports; and the same is true with some insects. The ants, hardworking as they are, have their times for play. They run races; they wrestle; and sometimes they have mock fights together. Very busy must be their thoughts while engaged in these sports.

There are many animals, however, that never play; their thoughts seem to be of the more sober kind. We never see frogs engaged in sport. They all the time appear to be very grave. The same is true of the owl, who always looks as if he were considering some important question.

Animals think much while building their houses. The bird searches

for what it can use in building its nest, and in doing this it thinks. The beavers think as they build their dams and their houses. They think in getting their materials, and also in arranging them, and in plastering them

together with mud. Some spiders build houses which could scarcely have been made except by some thinking creature.

As animals think, they learn. Some learn more than others. The parrot learns to talk, though in some other respects it is quite stupid. The mocking bird learns to imitate a great many different sounds. The horse is not long in learning many things connected with the work which he has to do. The shepherd dog does not know as much about most things as some other dogs , and yet he understands very well how to take care of sheep.

Though animals think and learn, they do not make any real improvement in their ways of doing things, as men do. Each kind of bird has its own way of building a nest, and it is always the same way. And

so of other animals. They have no new fashions, and learn none from each other. But men, as you know, are always finding new ways of building houses, and improved methods of doing almost all kinds of labor.

Many of the things that animals know how to do they seem to know either without learning, or in some way which we cannot understand. They are said to do such things by instinct; but no one can tell what instinct is. It is by this instinct that birds build their nests and beavers their dam and huts. If these things were all planned and thought out just

as men plan new houses. there would be some changes in the fashions of them, and some improvements.

I have spoken of the building instinct of beavers. An English gentleman caught a young one and put him at first in a cage. After a while he let him out in a room where there was a great variety of things. As soon as he was let out he began to exercise his building instinct. He gathered together whatever he could find, brushes, baskets, boots, clothes, sticks, bits of coal, etc., and arranged them as if to build a dam. Now, if

he had had his wits about him, he would have known that there was no

use in building a dam where there was no water.

It is plain that, while animals learn about things by their senses as

we do, they do not think nearly as much about what they learn, and this is the reason why they do not improve more rapidly. Even the wisest of them, as the elephant and the dog, do not think very much about what they see and hear. Nor is this all. There are some thing that we understand, but about which animals know nothing. They have no knowledge of

anything that happens outside of their own observation. Their minds are

so much unlike ours that they do not know the difference between right

and wrong.

06-A. Diamonds

Diamonds are rare, beautiful, and also quite useful. They are the

hardest substance found in nature. That means a diamond can cut any

other surface. And only another diamond can make a slight cut in a

diamond.

Diamonds are made from carbon. Carbon is found in all living

things, both plant and animal. Much of the carbon in the earth comes

from things that once lived.

Scientists know that the combination of extreme heat and pressure

changes carbon into diamonds. Such heat and pressure exist only in the

hot, liquid mass of molten rock deep inside the earth. It is thought that

millions of years ago this liquid mass pushed upward through cracks in

ooled, the carbon changed into diamond

the earth‘s crust. As the liquid c

crystals.

There are only four areas where very many diamonds have been

found.

The first known area was in India, where diamonds were found

thousands of years ago. In the 1600‘s, travelers from Europe brought back these beautiful stones from India. Diamonds became very popular with

the kings and queens of Europe.

In the 1720‘s, diamonds were discovered in Brazil. This discovery

came at a good time, too. India‘s supply of diamonds was finally

running

out after 2,500 years of mining the stones.

In the 1800‘s, two other important areas were found in Russia and

South Africa. Today, most diamonds used in industry come from Russia.

Most diamonds used as gems come from South Africa. Only 25 percent

of all diamonds mined are good enough for cutting into gems.

Most of the diamonds in India were found in stream beds. People

would pick up handfuls of gravel from the bottom of the streams and sort

out the diamonds. These diamonds were probably carried from where they were formed to India by great sheets of moving ice that covered parts of the earth 20,000 years ago.

Most diamonds today are not found in stream beds, however. They are mined from rock formations deep inside the earth called pipes. Scientists believe that these are parts of volcanoes that were formed when

crust. The hard rock in molten rock pushed upward through the earth‘s

which diamonds are found is called blue ground, because it is somewhat blue. The blue ground is blasted into large pieces of rock which are carried to the surface by elevator. Then the rocks are carefully crushed so that the diamonds are not destroyed. Next, the crushed material is taken over to washing tables. Here, it flows over boards thickly coated with grease. Since diamonds stick to grease, they are left behind by the rocks and mud which flow down the tables.

Diamonds, as they are found, do not look very impressive. They are gray, greasy-looking pebbles. Experienced diamond miners can tell a diamond immediately. But some people have carried around an unusual pebble for weeks before finding out that they had got a diamond.

06-B. The difference between plants and animals

if you were asked, ―what is the difference between plants and animals?‖ what answer do you think you would give? Your first thoug ht might be that a plant has leaves and roots and flowers, which an animal has not. Yet that would not be correct; for there are many plants which have neither roots nor leaves nor flowers, while there are some animals which seem to have all three.

Look up into the sky, and then down at the earth beneath your feet, It is easy enough, you think, to tell which is earth and which is sky; but if

you live in the wide, open country, or near the sea, you will often find when you look far away to the place where sky and earth seem to meet, that this is a matter of some difficulty. You see only the thin blue haze,

like smoke, which is the dividing line between the heavens and the earth. But just where the one ends and the other begins, you cannot tell.

Just so it is throughout al the world of Nature. You may look at a

group of cows standing under the trees or catch a bee at his early drink in a morning-glory bell, and you would laugh if any one should ask you whether you can tell an animal from a plant.

But suppose you turn aside from these familiar, everyday things, and study objects which you have to look at through a magnifying glass, and you will find many things that will puzzle you. You will find plants without roots, leaves, flowers, or seeds; and you will find animals without heads, legs, eyes, mouths, or stomachs.

Students of Nature are not satisfied with guessing, but they observe, day after day, the changes which take place in an object; and they see many things which most people would fail to see. And thus they have found that the real difference between plants and animals lies in what they do, and not in what they seem to be.

We now know that about one fourth of all the kinds of seaweed are animals. A few years age all of them were classed as plants. It was long supposed t hat the main difference between animals and plants was that the former could move about while the latter could not. But this difference will not hold good.

How then are we to know whether a living object is a plant or an animal? Plants can live on inorganic matter; they have the power of changing earth and air and water into substances w hich enter into and become a part of themselves. Animals can live only on what plants have already turned from inorganic to vegetable matter. Animals, although they need some inorganic food, cannot live on it alone.

All the food that keeps our bodies strong, or makes them grow, was once in the vegetable form. No bird nor fish nor other animal could ever have lived on this earth, if the plants had not come first and fitted it for

the dwelling place of a higher order of beings.

Plants are the true fairies that are forever working wonders around us. Their roots dig down into the earth and gather its treasures. Their leaves spread their broad surfaces to the air and take m its riches; and out of what they have thus gathered they produce the beautiful flowers, the delicious fruits, and the golden grain.

Let us study more closely the way in which a plant grows. The root pushes itself down into the earth. If it finds no water, it soon dies. If it

finds water, it begins to suck it up and change it into sap Besides the

water, it takes up such parts of the soil as are dissolved in the water.

Here, then, you see in what ways the food of the plant is different

from that of animals.

07-A. Families

the word has different meanings for different people, and ―Family‖—

even the dictionary gives us several definitions :―a group of people

related by blood or marriage,‖―two adults and their children,‖

and so on

―a household,‖　

people descended f rom a common ancestor,‖　

Some people think of a family as a mother, a father, and their children;

others include grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. For some of us,

family means the group of relatives living far away from home. For

others, having a family simply means having children. Some families

have long histories, while others know very little about their ancestors.

No matter if it is young or old, large or small, traditional or modern,

every family has a sense of what a family is. It is that feeling of belonging,

of love and security that comes from living together, helping and sharing.

There are basically two types of families: nuclear families and

extended families. The nuclear family usually consists of two parents

(mother and father) and their children. The mother and father form the

nucleus, or center, of the nuclear family. The children stay in the nuclear

family until they grow up and marry. Then form new nuclear families.

The extended family is very large. There are often many nuclear

families in one extended family. An extended family includes children

parents, grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins. The members of an

extended family are related by blood (grandparent, parents, children,

brothers, sisters, etc.) or by marriage (husbands, w ives, mothers-in-law,

etc). They are all related, so the members of an extended family are called relatives.

Traditionally, all the members of an extended family lived in the

same area. However, with the change from an agricultural to an industrial

society, many nuclear families moved away from the family home in

order to find work. In industrial societies today, the members of most

nuclear families live together, but most extended families do not live

together. Therefore we can say that the nuclear family becomes more

important than the extended family as the society industrializes.

In post-industrial societies like the United States, e ven the nuclear

family is changing. The nuclear family is becoming smaller as parents

want fewer children, and the number of childless families is increasing. Traditionally, the father of a nuclear family earned money for the family

while the mother cared for the house and the children. Today more than

50% of the nuclear families in the United States are two-earner families –

both the father and the mother earn money for the family – and in a few

families the mother earns the money while the father takes care of the

–

house and the children. Many nuclear families are also ―splitting up‖　

more and more parents are getting divorced.

What will be the result of this ―splitting‖ of the nuclear family? Social scientists now talk of two new family forms: the single parent

family and the remarried family. Almost 20% of all American families are

single parent families, and in 85% of these families the single parent is

the mother. Most single parents find it very difficult to take care of a

family alone, so they soon marry again and form remarried families. As

social scientists study these two new family form, they will be able to tell

us more about the future of the nuclear family in the post-industrial age.

07-B. The Changing American Family

The family is important to people all over the world although the

structure of the family is quite different from one country to another. In

the United States, as in many countries in the world, the family is

changing. A generation or two ago, the traditional family, in which the

father was boss, was customary. Now, the modern family, in which both

the father and the mother are equal partners, is more common. Although

there are several similarities between the traditional and the modern

family, there are also some very important differences.

The traditional family of yesterday and the modern family of today

have several similarities. The traditional family was a nuclear family, and

the modern family is, too. The role of the father in the traditional family

was to provide for his family. Similarly, the father in the modern family is

expected to do so, also. The mother in the traditional family took care of physical and emotional needs just as the modern mother the children‘s

does.

On the other hand, there are some great differences between the traditional family and the modern family. The first important difference is

in the man‘s role. the traditional husband was the head of the household, because he was the only one who worked outside the home. If the wife worked for pay, then the husband was not considered to be a good provider. In many families today, both husband and wife work for pay. Therefore, they share the role of head of household. In addition, the traditional husband usually made the big decisions about spending money. However, the modern husband shares these decisions with his working wife. Also, the traditional husband did not help his wife with the housework or meal preparation. Dinner was ready when he came home. In contrast, the modern husband helps his working wife at home. He may do some of the household jobs, and it is not unusual for him to cook.

The second difference is in the woman‘s r ole. In the traditional family, the woman may have worked for pay during her first years of marriage. However, after she became pregnant, she would usually give up her job. Her primary role was to take care of her family and home. In contrast, in many families today, the modern woman works outside the home even after she has children . She's doing two jobs instead of one, so she is busier than the traditional mother was. The traditional wife learned to live within her husband's income. On the other hand, the modern wife does not have to because the family has two incomes.

The final difference is in the role of the children. In the traditional family, the children were taken care of by the mother because she did not work outside the home. However, today preschool children may go to a child care center or to a baby-sitter regularly because the mother works. The school-age children of a traditions family were more dependent. their mother was there to help them to get ready for school and to make their breakfast. In contrast, modern children are more independent. They have to get up early in the morning and get ready for school. Their mother is busy getting ready for work, so they may even have to make their own breakfast.

In conclusion, the American family of today is different from the family of fifty years ago. In the modern family, the roles of the father,

mother, and children have changed as more and more women work outside the home. The next century may bring more important changes to the American family structure. It should be interesting to see.

08-A.Telecommunication via Satellite

At the beginning of the twentieth century, there were four powerful means of transmitting and receiving information over long distances: print, photography, telegraph and telephone. By the middle of the century, both radio and television had become established means of transmitting sound and/or pictures. In 1964, the Olympic Games in Tokyo became the first program to be transmitted via satellite.

In order to transmit an event such as the Olympics via satellite, television signals are first changed into radio waves, which are then sent from a station on earth to an orbiting satellite. The satellite receives the radio waves and sends them back to earth, where another station picks them up and changes them back into television signals. Because any form of sound or visual information can be changed into radio waves, satellites are capable of transmitting not only television broadcasts, but telephone calls and printed materials such as books and magazines.

The combination of satellites, which transmit information, computers, which store information, and television, which displays information, will change every home into an education and entertainment center. In theory, every person will have access to an unlimited amount of information.

Another important use of telecommunication satellites was demonstrated in 1974 when the "Teacher in Sky" satellite transmitted educational programs to classes in remote areas of the United States. In 1975, many people in India saw television for the first time as they watched programs about agriculture and health.

The satellite also demonstrated how it could provide help to people living in isolated areas w here transportation is difficult. For example, a health worker in an isolated area was able to transmit pictures of a patient s wound to a doctor far away. He was then able to follow the doctor's instructions on how to care for the patient.

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