胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1_3章

胡壮麟语言学重难点

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics

常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源

2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

1. 语言的定义特征

1.1. 任意性

1.2. 二重性

1.3. 创造性

1.4. 移位性

1.5. 文化传递性

1.6. 互换性

2. 语言的功能

1.1. 信息功能

1.2. 人际功能

1.3. 施为功能

1.4. 感情功能

1.5. 寒暄功能

1.6. 娱乐功能

1.7. 元语言功能

3. 微观语言学

3.1. 语音学

3.2. 音系学

3.3. 形态学

3.4. 句法学

3.5. 语义学

3.6. 语用学

4. 宏观语言学

4.1. 心理语言学

4.2. 社会语言学

4.3. 应用语言学

4.4. 计算语言学

4.5. 神经语言学

5. 重要概念及其区分

5.1. 描写式&规定式

5.2. 共时&历时

5.3. 语言&言语

5.4. 语言能力&语言应用

5.5. 唯素的&唯位的

5.6. 传统语法&现代语法

5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法

2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。

1. 语音学及其三大领域

1.1. 语音学定义

1.2. 语音学三大领域

①发音语音学

②声学语音学

③听觉语音学

2. 辅音

2.1. 辅音定义

发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。

2.2. 发音方式

发音方式是指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位的方式

2.3. 发音部位

发音部位是指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。

3. 元音

3.1. 元音定义

发音时，声道不受任何压缩或阻碍，因此不会有气流的紊乱或停滞，由此产生的音叫做元音。

3.2. 基本元音

基本元音是指一系列约定俗成的、固定不变的元音特质，目的是为语言中实际存在的元音描述提供一个参照框架。

3.3. 元音的划分标准

①舌头抬起的高度——高中低

②舌头最高部分的高度——前中后

③元音的长度或紧度

④唇的圆展度

4. 单元音、双元音、三元音

4.1单元音（monophthongs）

4.2. 双元音(diphthongs)

4.3. 三元音(triphthongs)

5. 协同发音&语音转写

5.1. 协同发音(coarticulation)

协同发音是指在实际话语过程中语音持续受邻近音的影响，发生同时或重复发音的过程。它包括先期协同发音（anticipatory coarticulation）和后滞协同发音（preservative coarticulation）。

5.2. 语音转写(phonetic transcription)

6. 音位

6.1. 音素（phone）

音素是语音学研究的一个基本单位，是人类的发音器官所能发出的最小的语音片断。

6.2. 音位（phoneme）

音位是音系学研究的一个基本单位，是一组语音特征的抽象集合体，具有区别意义的作用。习惯上，音位转写放在双斜线（//）内，如/t/, /d/.

6.3. 最小对立体(minimal pair)

当两个词，除了出现在同一位置上的音外，其余的音都相同，那么这两个词就构成了一对最小对立体。例如，pin和pen, pin 和ping.

7. 音位变体

7.1. 音位变体（allophone）

同一个音位在不同语音环境中的实现方式被称为该音位的音位变体。

7.2. 互补分布（complementary distribution）

当同一个音位的两个或两个以上的音位变体不区别意义，并且永远不会出现在相同的位置上，那么它们被称为处于互补分布。

7.3. 自由变体（free variation）

如果两个音素出现在一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，即用一个音素替换另一个音素不产生一个新词，仅仅产生同一个词的不同读音，那么这两个音素处于自由变异。

8. 音位对立&区别特征

8.1. 音位对立（phonemic contrast）

如果最小对立体中的两个音位出现在同一位置并且能够区别意义，那么这两个音位就构成了音位对立。

8.2. 区别特征(distinctive features)

区别特征是和音系相关的，即能够区别意义的语音特征，如英语音系中的爆破、双唇、清音等特征。

比较重要的区别特征有：[辅音] [响音]、[鼻音]、[带声]。这些特征都是二分特征，有两个值，分别为“+”，“-”。

9. 音系规则

9.1. 序列规则（sequential rule）

指在某一特定语言中支配音素水平组合的音系规则。例如，在英语中，“k,b,I,l”可能组合成blik,klib,bilk,kilb.

9.2. 同化规则(assimilation rule)

指能使一个音带上它相邻音的部分或所有特征，因而使得这两个音变得相似的音系规则。主要包括顺同化和逆同化。前者指在这个过程里前面的相邻音影响了其后音素的发音，使两者相似；

后者指在这个过程里后面的相邻音影响了前面音素的发音，使两者相似。

9.3. 省略规则（deletion rule）

某一个音尽管拼写形式存在但不发音的音系规则，叫做省略规则。例如，sign, design,和paradigm, 虽然拼写在都有字母g, 发音中却没有。这一规则可以描述为：若音节末尾为鼻辅音，其前面的[g] 可以省略。

10. 超音段特征---音节、重音、声调、语调

10.1. 超音段特征（suprasegmental features）

大于切分层面上的，能够区别意义的特征叫做超音段特征。超音段特征包括音节结构、重音、声调和语调。

10.2. 音节结构（syllable structure）

10.3. 重音（stress）

10.4. 声调（tone）

10.5. 语调（intonation）

Chapter 3 Lexicon

常考考点：词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）；词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词。

1. 词

1.1. 识别

⊙稳定性

⊙相对连续性

⊙最小的自由形式

1.2. 分类

⊙可变词&不变词

⊙词汇词&语法词

⊙封闭类词&开放类词

2. 语素

2.1. 定义

①语素

语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语

法意义。

②形态学

形态学研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则，包括屈折变化和词的形成两个领域。

2.2. 语素的类型

①自由语素&粘着语素

⊙自由语素（free morpheme）

能够单独出现或独立成词的语素。

⊙粘着语素（bound morpheme）

不能单独出现，必须跟至少一个其他语素共同出现的语素。

②词根、词缀&词干

⊙词根（root）

词根是构成词的基础成分，不能再做进一步分析而不破坏其意义。每个词都包括一个词根，它可以是自由语素或粘着语素。

⊙词缀（affix）

词缀是那些只能附着于另一个语素（词根或词干）上的一类语素的总称。词缀都是粘着语素，可分为前缀、中缀和后缀三种。

⊙词干（stem）

词干是能加屈折词缀的语素（组合），它相当于词根或词根加派生词缀。

③屈折词缀&派生词缀

⊙屈折词缀（inflectional affix）

屈折词缀不改变原词的词类，只是在词干后面添加一个微小或微妙的语法意义。

⊙派生词缀（derivational affix）

派生词缀通常改变词汇的意义和词类。英语中屈折词缀多为后缀，但派生词组还可以是前缀或后缀。

3. 语素&语素变体

①语素

语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变其语法意义或词汇意义。

②语素变体

那些代表同一语素的不同形素叫做该语素的语素变体。例如，英语名词复数语素｛plural｝有-s，-z, -iz, -ai, -n, -i:, 等不同的形素，它们叫做复数形素的语素变体。

4. 特有的词汇变化

4.1. 新创词

4.2. 混成法（blending）

混成法是指一个词由两个单词混合而成，一般把第一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来，或者是把两个单词的开头连接起来。例如，alcopop→alcohol+pop, faction→fact+fiction, flare→flame+glare, 等。

4.3. 缩写法（截断法）

Abbreviation(clipping), 是指把一个较长的词汇通过截断而得到的较短的词的构词方法。例如，photograph-photo, gasoline-gas等.

4.4. 缩略法（acronym）

缩略法是由组织机构的首字母组成的，而这个组织机构的名称有多个修饰语，例如，NATO, UNESCO,等。

4.5. 逆构词法（back-formation）

逆构词法是一种不规则的构词类型，即把一个语言中已经存在的较长的单词删去想象中的词缀，由此产生一个较短的单词，如back-form, edit,等.

4.6. 类推构词（analogical creation）

4.7. 借词法(borrowing)---辅导p99.

①借词(loanwords)

借词是指形式和意义都是借用的，有时为了适应新语言的音位系统，可以有些细小的改变。

②混合借词（loanblend）

混合借词是指借词的一部分来自本国语，另一部分来自外来语，但意义全部是借过来的。

③转移借词（loanshift）

转移借词的意义是借用的，但是形式四来自本国语。

④翻译借词（loan translation）

翻译借词是一种特殊的借用，每个语素或单词都是从另一种语言中的语素或对单词对等地翻译过来的。

5. 语义变化的主要方式并举例说明---辅导p10

6.

①词义扩大（broadening）

Holiday, offend, bird, quarantine, companion, pile, subsist, task.

②词义缩小（narrowing）

Camp, cattle, girl, liquid, orator, hound, deer, knight.

③词义转移(meaning shift)

Bead.

④词性变换(class shift)

Stump, hog.

⑤俗词源

6. 音位变化

6.1. 定义

音位变化是指因为语音上的改变而导致的形式变化。

6.2. 影响音位变化的因素

脱落、添加、换位、同化。

7. Explain the following terms

①morpheme

②stem

③compound

④allomorph

⑤back-formation

⑥prefix

8. Short answer questions

①How are affixes classified?

②How do you distinguish root and stem?

③Illustrate the relationship between morpheme and allomorph by examples.

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(现代语言学理论与流派)【圣才出品】

第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：

I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is

(完整版)胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题及答案

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题 第一章：语言学导论 I. Choose the best answer. (20%) 1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human A. contact C. relation B. communication D. community 2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? A. tree C. crash B. typewriter D. bang 3. The function of the sentence “ Waterboils at 100 degrees Centigrade. i”s A. interrogative C. informative B. directive D. performative 4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say “碎碎(岁岁)平安”asa means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform? A. Interpersonal C. Performative B. Emotive D. Recreational 5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? A. Transferability C. Displacement B. Duality D. Arbitrariness 6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? —A nice day, isn 't it? Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. A. Emotive C. Performative B. Phatic D. Interpersonal 7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language usesr knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. A. Performance C. Langue B. Competence D. Parole 8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now.

胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照

语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.sodocs.net/doc/2f4349762.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.sodocs.net/doc/2f4349762.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.

语言学重要知识点(胡壮麟版)

Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.eg.the dog barks wowwow in english but 汪汪汪in chinese.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.eg.dog-woof(but not w-oo-f)Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Eg. An experiment of bee communication.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 3. Origin of language The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. 4.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings. 5. Main branches of linguistics ?Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. ?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. ?Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes. ?Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. ?Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is concerned with both meanings of words as lexical items and levels of language below the word and above it. ?Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured. 6.Important distinctions in linguistics 1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive For example, ―Don’t say X.‖ is a prescriptive command; ―People don’t say X.‖ is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Lyons 2)Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. 3)Langue & parole langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). Saussure 4)Competence and performance According to Chomsky,a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence 7.consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题及典型题详解(第二语言和外语教学)【圣才出品】

第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。

本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1_3章

胡壮麟语言学重难点 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源 2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。 1. 语言的定义特征 1.1. 任意性 1.2. 二重性 1.3. 创造性 1.4. 移位性 1.5. 文化传递性 1.6. 互换性 2. 语言的功能 1.1. 信息功能 1.2. 人际功能 1.3. 施为功能 1.4. 感情功能 1.5. 寒暄功能 1.6. 娱乐功能 1.7. 元语言功能

3. 微观语言学 3.1. 语音学 3.2. 音系学 3.3. 形态学 3.4. 句法学 3.5. 语义学 3.6. 语用学 4. 宏观语言学 4.1. 心理语言学 4.2. 社会语言学 4.3. 应用语言学 4.4. 计算语言学 4.5. 神经语言学 5. 重要概念及其区分 5.1. 描写式&规定式 5.2. 共时&历时 5.3. 语言&言语 5.4. 语言能力&语言应用 5.5. 唯素的&唯位的 5.6. 传统语法&现代语法 5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法 2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。 1. 语音学及其三大领域 1.1. 语音学定义 1.2. 语音学三大领域 ①发音语音学 ②声学语音学 ③听觉语音学 2. 辅音 2.1. 辅音定义 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。 2.2. 发音方式 发音方式是指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位的方式 2.3. 发音部位 发音部位是指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。 3. 元音

语言学教程胡壮麟(第四版) 第3章

Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase 第一部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成 1. Morpheme 词素的定义 Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology 2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类 ①Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和黏着词素 Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation. Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes. ②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干 A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many others A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot). A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix. ③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀 Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways: 1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. 2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. 3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based on

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案 Chapter I In troducti on I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1.Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage. 2.L in guistics studies particular Ian guage, not Ian guages in gen eral. 3.A scie ntific study of Ian guage is based on what the lin guist thi nks. 4.In the study of lin guistics, hypotheses formed should be based on Ian guage facts and checked aga inst the observed facts. 5.Gen eral li nguistics is gen erally the study of Ian guage as a whole. 6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons, models and methods applicable in any lin guistic study. 7.Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to con vey meaning in com muni cati on. 8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meanin gful senten ces. 9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the comb in ati on of morphemes into words and words into senten ces. 11.The study of meaning in Ian guage is known as sema ntics. 12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13.Pragmatics is differe nt from sema ntics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolati on, but in con text. 14.Social cha nges can ofte n bring about Ian guage cha nges. 15.Sociolinguistics is the study of Ianguage in relation to society. 16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17.Moder n lin guistics is differe nt from traditi onal grammar. 18. A diachronic study of Ianguage is the description of Ianguage at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written Ianguage as primary, not the written Ian guage. 20.The disti ncti on betwee n compete nee and performa nee was proposed by F. de Saussure. II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the