自考英语语言学Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics

Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics心理语言学一、本章纲要

二、本章重点

(2005，单选；2007，名词解释) Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the term suggests, it is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend, and the mind or brain in which our linguistic and cognitive faculties are localized and organized, and interact with each other in particular ways. Our linguistic capability depends largely on the structure and dynamics of the human brain. 心理语言学主要从心理的角度对语言进行研究，目的在于揭示人类是如何掌握语言，说出语言和理解语的，语言与思维的关系等一系列问题。

1.The biological foundations of language语言的生理基础

（2005，判断）Our linguistic ability is a biological gift of the species’ gene program. 人类不需要课堂教学就可以自然习得自己的母语。人类有语言能力的主要原因不可能是人有声带，因为其它动物也有声带。人类的语言能力主要依赖人脑结构和人脑的机制。人类大脑的左半球的某些区域比右大脑相应的区域要大，这是人类大脑所特有的特征。由此，人们相信人类的语言能力有其生理基础。

The case of Phineas Gage盖奇案例

(2007，单选) The view that the brain is the source of human language and cognition goes back over 2000 years. 19世纪中叶,菲尼亚斯?盖奇由于工伤事故大脑前部损伤严重，但是他的感知能力、语言能力和理解能力都没有受到明显的影响。

（2008，单选）盖奇案例使得研究人员认为如果支配语言活动的中枢是在大脑的话，那么显然它不在大脑的前部。

大脑的表面，即大脑皮层，布满了上百亿个神经原(neurons)。将人与动物区别开来的认知能力都集聚在大脑皮层上（cerebral cortex）。

大脑分为左半球和右半球。将大脑两个半球相连的是神经路径(nerve pathway)。通常大脑左半球控制着人体右半身的活动，大脑右半球则控制着人体左半身的活动。

The human brain人的大脑

Human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells named neurons. The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain called cerebral cortex (大脑皮层).

（2002，填空）The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemispheres, one on the right and one on the left. The nerve pathway connecting two hemispheres coordinates their activities.

（2006，2008，判断）In general, right hemisphere controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, vice versa.

Brain lateralization大脑的侧化

（2005，填空）The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.

The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational (发展成熟的过程). Although many maturational processes are not uncommon in the biological development of other species, brain lateralization appears to be specific to human beings. It is a commonly held view that lateralization is an evolutionary precondition of the development of superior intelligence as well as a precondition of language acquisition.

（2004，判断）Psychological research shows that both hemispheres perform important, mental functions and they differ only in the manner in which they treat incoming stimuli.

大脑的认知等功能的分工过程叫作大脑侧化。脑力活动功能的分工有一个发育成长的过程。大脑单侧化的功能是人类大脑所特有的。左大脑和右大脑都参与人类重要的智能活动，只是在处理所接收的刺激信号的方式上有所差异。它们之间的关系是一种相互依赖、互为补充的关系：如：（单选，判断）Left hemisphere Right hemisphere

language and speech perception of nonlinguistic sounds

analytic reasoning holistic reasoning

temporal ordering visual and spatial skills

reading and writing recognition of patterns

calculation recognition of musical melodies

associative thought

2.Linguistic lateralization语言侧化

It is the brain’s neurological specialization for language. Linguistic lateralization in terms of left hemisphere dominance for language is found to exist in an overwhelming majority.

Left hemisphere dominance for language左半球的语言优势

语言侧化(linguistic lateralization)指语言能力在大脑神经系统中的分工。一般认为，语言功能的侧化主要在大脑的左半球。对于多数人而言，大脑左半球有着语言上的优势，这种优势与与惯用右手之间没有直接和必然的联系。

Dichotic listening research两耳分听实验

It was used to analyze the characteristics of incoming stimuli processed by the individual hemispheres, later leading to right ear advantage not for all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature.

两耳分听研究的结果证实了人类大脑左半球的语言侧化现象。两耳分听实验让受试者带着耳机，然后同时向左右耳输入不同的语言信号。研究人员发现受试者能够更为准确地报告由右耳输入的语言信号。

研究人员认为右耳接收到的语言信息直接进入左脑进行加工，而左耳接收到的信息先进入右脑，然后再从右脑送至左脑进行加工。由于间接的路径比直接的路径长，且信息传输所需的时间也长，所以受试者在报告左耳听到的信息没有右耳听到的信息准确。这种现象又称为“右耳优势”。

3.The language centers语言中枢

In addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical utterances, three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language, which are Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, the angular gyrus.

Broca’s area (Broca is a French surgeon and anatomist) 布罗卡区

The first to substantiate the claim that damage to a specific area of the brain results in a speech production deficit. （2004，单选）Language disorder resulting from damage to this area in the brain reveals word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax. 布罗卡区位于左大脑前部小叶区,有着控制语言表达的机能。布罗卡区受伤的病人在交际时在句法和选择单词时遇到障碍。

Wernicke’s area韦尼克区

He contributed directly to the hypothesis that there was more than one language area in the left-brain. His patient may suffer a severe loss of understanding. Unlike Broca’s aphasics (失语症), it produces fast and fluent speech with good intonation and pronunciation. The content of their speech ranges from mildly inappropriate to complete nonsense, often intelligible. They are very general in response to specific requests for information. 韦尼克区是另一个重要语言区域，它位于左大脑后部的一个区域。韦尼克区受伤的病人听力正常，但是他们与布罗卡区受伤的病人不同，他们能够说出流利的话语，语音语调也好，但是说出的话往往不得体，甚至没有意义。

The angular gyrus角形脑回

（2002，名词解释）It lies behind Wernicke’s area. It is responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa. 角形脑回有着控制视觉信号与听觉信号的相互连接和互为转换的机能，如：把言语与所感知的物体相联系，对物体进行命名以及对笔头语言的理解。它位于韦尼克区的后部。

Language perception, comprehension and production (感知、理解、表达)

（2001，42，论述：Describe the process of language perception, comprehension and production.）

Listen: Wernicke’s area (heard and comprehended) →Broca’s area (prepare to produce) →motor area (utterance)

Speak: Wernicke’s area (word source) →Broca’s area (prepare to produce) →motor area (utterance)

When we try to understand a spoken, rather than a written, name of an object, the stimulus from the auditory cortex is transmitted to Wernicke’s area, where it is then interpreted. In cases where the object is associated with a visual image, a message is sent to the angular gyrus, where it is converted into a visual stimulus, arousing the appropriate pattern in the visual area.

人们在听话时，通过听觉感知到的语言信号先在韦尼克区内进行解释，然后被传递到布罗卜区准备表达，这时布罗卡区向控制发音器官的肌动区域发出表达指令。

人们在说话时，先从韦尼克区提取词汇，然后将它们传送到布罗卡区，再由布罗卡区决定言语的具体形式和发音，并向肌动区域发出予以表达的指令。

语言的使用需要语言各中枢的协调。语言的使用与理解比以上所描述的要复杂的多。

4.The critical period for language acquisition语言习得关键期

Eric Lenneberg was a major proponent.

The critical period hypothesis关键期假设

(2005,名词解释；2006，单选) It refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction. It coincides with the process of brain lateralization. Prior to this period, both hemispheres are involved to some extent in language and one can take over if the other is damaged. This neurological flexibility is called cerebral plasticity (大脑可塑性). 语言习得关键期的假设是由Lennerberg提出的，大约从2岁到青春期。在这一段时间里，人比其他任何一个时期都更容易习得语言而不需要课堂教学。习得母语的关键期与人的大脑单侧化过程相吻合。有两个研究结果证明了Lenneberg的假设：首先，在单侧化结束以前，由于大脑的可塑性，左大脑受伤的儿童，其语言中枢可以转移至右大脑，既而恢复自己的语言功能。其次，超过关键期的成年人学习第二语言的能力不如儿童。

The case of Genie and the degeneration of language faculty吉妮案例与语言机制的退化

Conclusion:

（2002，判断）language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop. Human’s language acquisition device is independent of other intellectual abilities according to his case.

美国儿童吉妮在出生20个月后被父亲关在家中，与社会隔绝。吉妮被解救时已有13岁半，在年龄上超过了语言习得的关键期。吉妮在过了语言习得临界期后开始学习母语，至今尚未完全习得英语。吉妮案例表明，人类的语言习得机制在超过关键期以后有一个生理的退化期。

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/3c7687617.html,nguage and thought语言与思维

Early views on language and thought有关语言与思维关系的一些早期观点

有关语言与思维关系的早期观点主要为相互对立的两种理论，即心灵论与经验论。心灵论者认为语言与思维是统一体，语言无非是一种有声思维，思维则是一种无声语言。经验论者认为，语言与思维非统一体，语言只是一种心理上的经验，人类有着不同的语言，人类语言的不同是因为人类心理经验的不同。

1)（2007，判断）Plato suggested that thought was the soul’s discourse with itself, which in other words means that thought and language were identical. It is mentalist, echoed by Walson (American psychologist and founder of Behaviorism) and Bloomfield who said that thinking is a system of movements that had been reduced from

actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible.

2)Aristotle challenged his thought arguing that mankind could not have the same languages and that language were only songs of psychological experiences.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis萨丕尔——沃尔夫假设

It is the most provocative position to date on the relationship between language and thought, against Plato. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism. He also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism（2004，名词解释）. In short, the strong version of the hypothesis proposes that the language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the nature of thought. Accordingly, there is no real translation.

沃尔夫认为高层次的思维依赖于语言，语言决定思维。这种强假设又被称为语言决定论。沃尔夫认为由于语言与语言之间存在差异，所以说不同语言的人对客观世界的认知也是不同的。这种假设又称之为“语言相对论”。

根据强假设，真正的翻译是不存在的，学习不同文化的语言是不可能的，除非学习者放弃自己的思维模式去习得目标语民族的思维模式。

Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (very popular today) 对萨丕尔——沃尔夫假设的批判

语言不能决定思维。语言的形与义的关系在很大程度上是约定俗成的，并不存在内在的逻辑关联。虽然语言在表层结构上呈现出差异，但是所有的语言在本质上具有普遍性。

Words and meaning单词与意义

It is widely accepted that the vocabulary of a language consists of nothing more than meaningless labels, which are manipulated by language users to elicit emotional reactions or behavioral responses, to impart 给予information or to direct the listener’s attention. The meaning of word highly depends on and changes by context. 词与意之间的关系是任意的、约定俗成的关系。对自然世界中的事物等的命名对认知系统并不发生根本的影响。一种语言中有大量表示“雪”的单词与一种语言中只有一个表示“雪”的单词并不意味着说后一种语言的人不能感知不同类型的雪。一种语言中没有“雪”这个单词并不意味着说这种语言的人不能掌握“雪”的概念。

人们普遍认为一种语言的词汇只是无意义的标记。一个词的意义在很大的程度上取决于交际的语境。交际的语境变了，一个词或一个句子的语义也会随之发生改变。

Grammatical structure句法结构

Many grammatical features are purely superficial aspects of linguistic structure. 语言的句法体系的差异与说这些语言人的认知体系差异并不存在直接的关联。语言结构与认知体系并不是紧密相互依存的关系。语言的差异主要是语言表层结构差异。例如英语在动词后边加上词素-(e)s来指示单数第三人称，汉语的动词在表示单数第三人称时没有这种形态变化并不意味着说汉语的人不能理解或掌握单数第三人称的概念。

Translation翻译

There are some conceptual differences between cultures due to language, but this is not to say that the differences are so great that mutual comprehension is impossible. One language may take many words to say what another language says in a single word, but in the end the circumlocution婉转曲折的陈述can make the point.

如果说语言决定思维，语言的差异是认知体系的差异，那么语言之间的互译是不可能的。英语和河皮语属于完全不同的语言，但是人们可以用英语去解释河皮语的特征本身就说明语言不能决定思维。虽然我们说语言不能决定思维，但这并不意味着语言的差异对认知的差异没有影响。但是这种由语言引起的差异并没有大到双方不可理解的程度。

Second language acquisition第二语言习得

第二语言习得从一个侧面也反驳了萨丕尔——沃尔夫的假设。如果两种语言的差异体现的是不同的理念体系，那么第二语言习得就不可能。由于人们可以习得两种，甚至两种以上完全不同的语言，这说明语言的差异不可能体现的是理念系统的差异。

Language and world views语言与世界观

Remains of how language and thought are related to each other.

语言是表达世界观的媒介。语言与世界观并不存在内在的联系。说同一语言的人会有不同的世界观; 说不同语言的人也会有相似的世界观。

从以上讨论不难看出语言不能决定思维。

Understanding the relation of language and thought对语言与思维关系的再认识

Major functions of language语言的主要功能

Interpersonal communication and intrapersonal communication(facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual). 语言有人际交流（interpersonal communication）与自我交流(intrapersonal communication)两大主要功能。人际交流的主要功能是相互传递信息、思想、感情等，相互影响、调节，甚至控制对方的行为。自我交流的功能主要表现在语言有助于思维、有助于言语行为的发生。

The development and blending of language and thought语言与思维的发展与融合

Over a period of time, the language system is formed alongside the development of thought. Although they are two different systems developing along two different routes, part of the language system is part of the thought system. The thought and language system are joined through meaning and ideas. Thus, language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles overlapping in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without the other. When they are identical and closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”(无声语言), and speech as “overt thought”(有声思维). （2001，单选；2003，填空；2006，名词解释）In such a case, they take place simultaneously.

语言与思维的最初的发展既非同步，又非同路，两者之间的关系不是一种决定与被决定的关系。语言作为一种“有声思维”，思维作为一种“无声语言”是语言与思维在其发展中的一种融合。语言与思维两者相互作用、相互影响。它们的关系犹既相互独立又相互交叉。

Thinking without language (possible) 没有语言的思维

(2004，填空) People may communicate their feelings and thoughts via nonverbal signals such as facial expressions, grimaces, gestures, posture, or proxemic space.虽然思维主要是通过语言来表达，但是语言不是表达思维的唯一媒介。人们完全可以使用非语言手段进行思维或传情达意。比如音乐家可以用音乐思维，数学家可以用几何线条思维，画家用色彩思维，等。因此不难看出思维与语言之间没有直接关联。

Language as a conventional coding system to express thought语言：表达思想的约定俗成的符号体系

It is conventional rather than genetic. A particular coding system comprises a particular set of arbitrary verbal symbols, which do not arise from, nor do they give birth to, a particular conceptual system. 语言符号与语义之间并不存在内在的、逻辑的关联。这意味着语言与思维的理念体系之间也是一种约定俗成的关系，而不是一种生理的关系。说两种语言的人并不是具有两种世界观的人。语言之间的转换也不是世界观之间的转换。语言只是表达思想的约定俗成的符号体系。

(2003,2004，判断) As a matter of fact, speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences according to their respective different linguistic coding systems for the same objective world.

The ways in which language affects thought语言影响思维的方式

Language influences, rather than determine, the way we perceive the world and recall things, and affect the ease with which we perform mental tasks. 语言不能决定思维，但是语言对思维是有影响的。如果一个概念有特定的语言符号去表示，那么人们在学习这个概念时就会相对容易。一个有“雪”这个词语言与一个没有“雪”这个词的语言相比，虽然这两种语言都可以表达这个自然现象，但是前者比后者在表达这一自然现象时要方便容易得多。作为一套约定俗成的符号系统，语言可以用以储存、回忆和表达概念，并在一定程度上影响人们的思维。

三、本章历年试题

I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%)

9. Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles overlapping in some parts. When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as "subvocal speech," and speech as "_______".( )

A. vocal thought

B. subvocal thought

C. covert thought

D. overt thought

9. Which of the following choices is not the key biological basis for human language acquisition? ______.

A. Cerebral cortex

B. Neurons

C. Eyes

D. Angular gyrus

9. Which of the major mental functions listed below is not under the control of the left hemisphere in most people? __________.

A. language and speech

B. visual and spatial skills

C. reading and writing

D. analytic reasoning

9.Many aphasics do not show total language loss. Rather, different aspects of language are impaired. Aphasics in ( ) area

reveal word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax.

A. Werniker’s

B. visual

C. motor

D. Broca’s

9. is the study of language in relation to the mind.

A. Psycholinguistics

B. Sociolinguistics

C. Linguistics

D. Semantics

9．The critical period for language acquisition refers to the short period of _____________years old in one’s life, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language.

A．1-2 B．2-12 C．1-12 D．13-18

9. Th e view that human brain is the source of human language and cognition goes back _______.

A. less than 1000 years

B. over 2000 years

C. less than 2000 years

D. over 3000 years

9. The case of Phineas Gage showed us that _______.( )

A. human language ability is not located in the brain because Phineas’ brain was so damaged and he could still speak

B. human language ability is located in the right hemisphere of the brain

C. if human language ability is located in the brain, it is not situated right at the back

D. if human language ability is located in the brain, it is not situated right at the front

II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1% ×10=10%)

19. The brain's neurological specialization for language is called linguistic I ________, which is specific to human beings. 19. The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called h________, one on the right and one on the left.

19. When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may r egard thought as “s speech,” and speech as “overt thought.” In such a case, speaking and thinking take place simultaneously.

19. People may communicate their feelings or thoughts via n signals such as facial expressions, gestures, postures, or proxemic space.

19. It’s known that specialized linguistic and perceptual skills are each localized in a particular hemisphere of the brain. The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called l .

19.D_________________ listening tests involve simultaneously presenting, through earphones, two different auditory signals, one to the right ear and the other to the left ear.

19. Language functions are believed to be lateralized primarily in the 1 hemisphere of the brain.

19. The brain’s neurological specialization for language is called linguistic l_______, which psycholinguists are particularly interested in.

III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. If you think a statement is false, you must explain why you think so and then give the correct version. (2%×10=20%)

( )29. If a child is deprived of linguistic environment, he or she is unlikely to learn a language successfully later on.

29.( )The case of Genie confirms that the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.

29. ( ) Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences of the same objective world according to their respective different linguistic coding system.

29. ( ) The left hemisphere of the brain is superior to the right hemisphere because the left hemisphere is language-dominant.

29. ( ) Human linguistic ability largely depends on the structure of their vocal cords.

29. ( )Generally speaking, left-handed people have their language centers in the left hemisphere of the brain.

29. ( ) Aristotle suggested that thought was the soul’s discourse with itself.

29.( ) The right hemisphere controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.

IV. Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration. (3% ×10=30%)

39. angular gyrus

39. lingua franca

40. cerebral cortex

39. the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

38. the critical period hypothesis

39. intrapersonal communication

38. subvocal speech

40. psycholinguistics

40. right ear advantage

V. Directions: Answer the following questions. (10%×2=20%)

42. Describe the process of language perception, comprehension and production.

全国自考2016年10月00541《语言学概论》历年真题及答案

2016年10月高等教育自学考试全国统一命题考试 语言学概论试卷(课程代码 00541) 第一部分选择题 一、单项选择题(本大题共20小题，每小题l分，共20分) 在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其选出并将“答题卡” 的相应代码涂黑。未涂、错涂或多涂均无分。 1.下面各项中，属于汉语北方方言的是 A.广州话 B.福州话 C.重庆话 D.上海话 2.汉语拼音字母b、p、m都是 A.舌尖音 B.唇齿音 C.正齿音 D.双唇音 3.下面各项属于自源文字的是 A.英文字母 B.甲骨文 C.腓尼基字母 D.希腊字母 4.儿童“以词代句语言”出现在 A.单词句阶段 B.语法句阶段 C.简单句阶段 D.复杂句阶段 5.“叶子岀水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙”一句采用的修辞手法是 A.比拟 B.仿写 C.夸张 D.比喻 6.下面各项中含有轻声音节的是 A.渐渐 B.妈妈 C.声声 D.人人 7.“在家休息”是一个 A.动宾词组 B.主谓词组 C.偏正词组 D.兼语词组 8.不同行业有自己的“行话“行话”属于 A.地域方言 B.社会方言 C.亲属语言 D.混合语言 9.“半两棉花——免弹（谈)”采用的方法是 A.转移欢关 B.语义汉关 C.语音双关 D.替代双关 10.下面各项属于语言符号特点的是 A.约定性 B.自然性 C.固定性 D.想象性 11.一种语言的共同语是在某一个方言的基础上形成的，这种方言叫 A.母方言 B.底层方言 C.基础方言 D.原始方言

12.谈话体属于 A.书面语体 B.宣传语体 C.文学语体 D.口语语体 13.唐太宗名李世民，唐代人便把“世”改为“代'把“民”改成“人”，这是为了 A.避讳 B.图吉利 C.讨口彩 D.自谦 14.中国历史上推行“书同文”措施的是 A.齐桓公 B.秦始皇 C.汉武帝 D.唐玄宗 15.汉语中“罗汉、菩萨、塔、阎罗”等词的出现，是因为 A.儒家学说的兴盛 B.道教的兴起 C.名教的影响 D.佛教的传入 16.“弟弟吃苹果”不能说成“苹果弟弟吃'这是受制于语言符号的 A.组合关系 B.聚合关系C联想关系 D.分类关系 17.音高取决于声波的 A.振幅 B.数量 C.长短 D.频率 18.“这是革命的春天，这是人民的春天，这是科学的春天”，这个句子是 A.反复句 B.顶真句 C.对偶句 D.回环句 19.中国叫“绥远、定远”之类名字的地方，往往当年 A.水草丰美 B.山川秀丽 C.曾发生战乱后被抚平 D.人口特别多 20.—个民族的全体或部分成员放弃使用本民族语言转而使用另一民族语言的现象叫 A.语言混合 B.语言转用 C.克里奥尔 D.双语现象 二、多项选择题(本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分) 在每小题列出的五个备选项中至少有两个是符合题目要求的，请将其选出并将“答题卡”的相应代码涂黑。未涂、错涂、多涂或少涂均无分。 21.下面关于语言和民族、国家关系的说法中，正确的有 A.—个民族只能说一种语言 B.—个民族可以说多种语言 C.一个国家只有一种语言 D.—个国家可以有多种语言 E.不同民族可以说同一种语言 22.下面各项中，属于元音的有 A.[a] B.[f] C. [l] D.[o] E.[p] 23.下面各项中属于发散思维的表现形式的有 A.音乐 B.舞蹈 C.绘画 D.推理 E.文学 24.下面各项中彼此有亲属关系的语言有 A.日语 B.葡萄牙语 C.老挝语 D.朝鲜语 E.英语 25.下面各项中，属于借词的有

27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology

Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on

(完整版)历年真题2014年10月自考英语(二)试题和标准答案

2014年10月高等教育自学考试英语（二）试卷 （课程代码00015） 本试卷满分100分，考试时间150分钟。 考生答题注意事项： 1．本卷所有试卷必须在答题卡上作答。答在试卷上无效，试卷空白处和背面均可作草稿纸。 2．第一部分为选择题。必须对应试卷上的题号使用2B铅笔将“答题卡”的相应代码涂黑。 3．第二部分为非选择题。必须注明大、小题号，使用0.5毫M黑色字迹签字笔作答。 4．合理安排答题空间，超出答题区域无效。 第一部分选择题 一、阅读判断（第1—10题，每题1分，共10分） 下面的短文后列出了10个句子，请根据短文的内容对每个句子作出判断：如果该句提供的是正确信息，选择A；如果该句提供的是错误信息，选择B；如果该句的信息文中没有提及，选择C。在答题纸相应位置上将答案选项涂黑。 The Stranger Who Changed My Life It was a sunny morning in the spring of 1966. I was driving a taxi, looking for a customer. While passing New York Hospital, I found a man running down the hospital steps, waving at me. I stopped. The man reached the taxi and jumped in. “The Airport, please,”he said. As always, I wondered about my passenger. Was this man a talker? After a few moments, he started saying, “How do you like driving a taxi?” “It’s OK” I said. “I make a living and meet interesting people sometimes.” “What do you do?” I asked. “I am a doctor at New York Hospital.” Many times during long rides, I’d developed a good relationship with my passengers and received very good advice from them. This time I decided to ask for his help. “Could I ask a favor of you?” He didn’t answer. “I have a son, 15, a good kid. He wants a job this summer. Is it possible that you get one for him?” He still wasn’t talking, and I was starting to feel foolish. Finally, he said, “Well, my students have a summer research project. Maybe he could join in. Have him send me his school record.” He left his address and paid me. It was the last time I ever saw him.

英语自考语言学填空题

1.Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but the detail of language have to be taught and learned. 2.Displacement means that language can be used to refer to thing which present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present or future or in far-away places. https://www.sodocs.net/doc/3c7687617.html,nguage is a system considering of two sets of structures, or two levels. https://www.sodocs.net/doc/3c7687617.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 5.Chomsky defined competence as the ideal speaker’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 7.Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken from of language. 8.The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. 9.Psycholinguistic relates the study of language to psychology. 10.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 11.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. 12.vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing 13.of all the speech organs , the tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other. 14.when the obstruction is partial and the air if forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point ,the speech sound thus produced is a fricative in the production of

2019年自考英语二历年试题(真题)及答案

2019年10月髙等教育自学考试全国统一命题考试 英语(二）试卷（课程代码：00015） 本试卷共8页，满分100分，考试时间150分钟。 考生答卷前必须将自己的姓名和准考证号写在答题卡上。 必须在答题卡上答题，写在试卷上的答案无效。 第一部分：阅读判断（第1?10题，每题1分，共10分） 下面的短文后列出了10个句子，请根据短文的内容对每个句子作出判断：如果该句提供的是正确信息，选择A；如果该句提供的是错误信息，选择B;如果该句的信息文中没有提及，选择C。在答题卡相应位置上将答案选项涂黑。 To Lease(租赁) or Not to Lease Planning to lease a car because you don't think you can afford to buy? Think again. Leasing can end up being just as expensive as buying. Most people think about leasing because they believe it will cost them less money. They're right-it is cheaper, but only in the short term. For example, if you were to lease anew Subaru Forester, you might pay $300 per month for the car. If you were to buy the same car, you would pay about $400 per month. Over a three-year, you would save $3600-a big savings. But after your lease is over, you have to give the car back. Many people want to lease because they can drive a more expensive car than they might otherwise be able to afford. For example, if you spend $300 monthly on a car, you might be able to lease a new Ford Explorer. For the same price, you might have to buy a used Explorer, or buy a new but much less expensive model. A lease，therefore，allows you to drive the latest models of more expensive cars. However, whatever car you can afford to buy you get to keep it, and it will always have a resell or trade-in(以新旧换)value if you want to upgrade to a new car later. Furthermore, people who lease cars are often shocked by how much they must pay when the lease is over . Most leases limit you to a certain number of miles. If you go over that, you must pay for each mile. As a result, you may end up paying thousands of dollars in mileage(里程) fees. In addition, when you lease ,you have to pay for regular maintenance and repairs to the vehicle. Since you must return the car finally, you are paying to repair someone else's car.

高等教育自学考试英语 真题

2016年10月高等教育自学考试英语（二）真题 第一部分：阅读判断（第1~10题，每题1分，共10分）下面的短文后列出了10个句子，请根据短文的内容对每个句子作出判断：如果该句提供的是正确信息，选择A；如果该句提供的是错误信息，选择B；如果该句的信息文中没有提及，选择C。在答题卡相应位置上将答案选项涂黑。 Being ”Cool” in Middle School A new study shows that gentle and quiet kids in middle school will grow up to rule. Or, they’ll live healthier and more productive lives than the “cool” kids will. The study looked at 13-year-olds who acted old for their age by having “cool”behavior, such as early romantic relationships. They were seen as “cool” and popular kids. But as they grew up, things changed. The study found that these kids tended to have problems with drugs and relationships by their 20s. Their behavior was no longer linked with popularity. Instead, they were thought to be less socially skilled by their peers. Besides, the average “cool”kids, by age 22, did more poorly than the average kids in the study. They had a 45 percent greater rate of problems due to drugs and alcohol. They also had a 22 percent greater rate of criminal behavior. The study also found that these kids failed to develop important life skills. They spent so much time trying to seem cool. They didn’t

历年全国自考语言学概论真题

历年全国自考语言学概论真题 请考生按规定用笔将所有试题的答案涂、写在答题纸上。 选择题部分 注意事项： 1. 答题前,考生务必将自己的考试课程名称、姓名、准考证号用黑色字迹的签字笔或钢笔填写在答题纸规定的位置上。 2. 每小题选出答案后,用2B铅笔把答题纸上对应题目的答案标号涂黑。如需改动,用橡皮擦干净后,再选涂其他答案标号。不能答在试题卷上。 一、单项选择题(本大题共20小题,每小题1分,共20分) 在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的,请将其选出并将“答题纸”的相应代码涂黑。错涂、多涂或未涂均无分。 1．下列关于语言符号的表述,不正确的一项是 A．语言符号包括能指和所指 B．语言符号的音和义不可分割 C．语言符号音义关系具有任意性 D．语言符号不能分解和重新组合 2．几万、几十万个词通过排列组合可以产生无限多的句子,这主要是由于语言符号具有 A．离散性 B．强制性 C．可变性 D．任意性 3．下列关于韵律特征的表述,不正确的一项是 A．韵律特征在不同的语言中具有不同的特点 B．韵律特征自身不能单独占据一个时间段落 C．韵律特征从构成要素看是一种对比性特征 D．韵律特征包括“音质特征”和“音段特征” A．同化 B．异化 C．弱化 D．增音

6．下列关于“语”的表述,正确的一项是 A．“语”指的是那些由语素构成的固定词组 B．“语”和“词”在内部构造方面没有分别 C．“语”的结构往往不具有固定性和整体性 D．“语”的结构常常呈现为某种特定的格式 7．英语动词“like(喜欢)”的单数第三人称形式是“likes”,这属于 A．变形构词 B．变性成词C．语汇构词 D．语法构词8．“众人拾柴火焰高”属于 A．惯用语 B．谚语C．歇后语 D．成语9．主要功能是用来“造句”的同一级语法单位是 A．语素和语素组 B．语素组和词C．词和词组 D．词组和句子10．对“很中国”中“中国”一词用法的说明,正确的是 A．仍然是名词 B．变成了形容词 C．名词活用作形容词 D．名词兼形容词11．“你吃点什么吗?”这个句子是 A．一般疑问句 B．特指疑问句C．选择疑问句 D．反问疑问句12．下列词语,属于相对反义词的一组是 A．必然—偶然 B．萧条—繁荣

现代语言学名词解释

现代语言学名词解释 现代语言学 一绪论 1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language 2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants 3 Phonology” : T he study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means d ifferent context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are

广东自考英语语言学测验题

2011年1月广东省高等教育自学考试英语语言学问卷课程代码06422） I.Blank-filling (20%)Fill in the following blanks with a word ,whose initial letter has been given. 1. The 3 branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics ,auditory phonetics ,and a__________ phonetics. 2. When 2 different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings ,they are said to be in a m_________ pair . 3. R__________ motivation refers to the fact that learners learn a second language for external purposes . 4. Later Noam Chomsky prefers this innate endowment as UG ,i.e. U_____ Grammar. 5. In "NP → （Deg )A(pp)……", the dots in the rule indicate that other c________ options are available . 6. The articulatory apparatus of human being are contained in 3 important areas :the p______ cavity，the oral cavity ,and the nasal cavity. 7. L________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community . 8. H________ refers to the sense relation between a more general ,more inclusive word and a more specific word . 9. The description of a language at a given point in time is a s______ study. 10. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication is called p_________. 11. The structure corresponding to the final syntactic output of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations is called s______ structure. 12. The term d________, first used by Ferguson in 1959,refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism . 13. Learners' independent system of the second language which is of neither the second language is known as i______. 14. The sound ［p］in pit is pronounced with a strong puff of air, which is said to be a________. 15. C_______ model states that in word comprehension words are analyzed by hearers from beginning to end. 16. S______ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form and is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form . 17. Major lexical categories are Noun, Verb , Adjective , and P___________. 18. S_______ is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between linguistic and society between the uses of language and social structures. 19. P________ is concerned with the progress of language comprehension and production. 20. Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but languages in g____. II. Multiple choice(20%)Choose the best answer to the following items. 21. __refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . A.Syntax B. Etymology C. Lexicology D. Morphology 22. ___ aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication . A. Phonetics B. Phonemics C. Phonology D. Phonotactics 23. Language ___ refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. A. aptitude B. competence C. performance D. attitude 24. ___ is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional ,social, gender, and age variations . A. Idiolect B. Pidgin C. Sociolect D. Creole

2018年4月自考 英语(一) 试题

2018年4月高等教育自学考试《英语（一）》试题 课程代码：00012 一、阅读判断 Finding Paradise (天堂) and Success in Retirement Ivy Singh and her husband had their retirement all planned out. They wanted to have a place with enough land to grow plants. The couple successfully found a proper place and turned it into a farm called Bollywood Veggies. "We came and had a look and we found paradise. We started Bollywood Veggies there and then," she says. The basic idea of starting the farm was to keep themselves busy in retirement. Mrs. Singh says it was never begun as a business. "We started this as a lifestyle project for retirement." The farm's produce includes beans, cabbage and other crops. Soon, more people found out about the farm. Visitors often asked whether the farm offered any food or drinks. So the couple started a restaurant and a food museum on the farm. As the farm changed from a retirement to a commercial project, Mrs. Singh sought new business opportunities. A key area was growing bananas. Given the popularity of bananas and their use in a range of food products, she saw great potential. The farm uses its crop to make products such as banana chips and bread. Mrs. Singh, driven by the success of the project, now wants to open a retirement home on the farm. She says the farm is a nice place for people who have retired. Mrs. Singh says she does not care much about the profit, because she is getting to live her dream while making a difference to society. 1. Ivy and her husband made a careful plan for retirement. A. True B. False C. Not Given 2. Before retirement, the couple were doing business on plants. A. True B. False C. Not Given 3. The couple started Bollywood Veggies for business purposes. A. True B. False C. Not Given 4. Cabbage was the first vegetable planted on the farm. A. True B. False C. Not Given 5. The couple opened a restaurant close to the farm. A. True B. False C. Not Given 6. Mrs. Singh planted bananas because they were very popular. A. True B. False C. Not Given 7. Visitors to the farm like its banana chips the best. A. True B. False C. Not Given 8. Mrs. Singh built a retirement home on the farm. A. True B. False C. Not Given 9. Mrs. Singh thinks the farm is a good place for retired people.

自考英语2011年1月

全国2011年1月高等教育自学考试 现代语言学试题答案及解析点评 （课程代码：00838） I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. (2% ×10=20%) 1. C 【解析】句意：语言使用者所知道的语言能力，与我们在实际生活中对语言的产出和理解的具体运用之间存在着区别。因此应当选C。参考书本第7页。 【点评】本题考查语言学中语言能力与语言运用的区别，属重点，应识记。 2. A 【解析】The letter “ch” in the word “church” pronounces /t?/, while the letter “dge” in “judge” pronounces /d?/. /t?/ and /d?/ are all affricates. Affricates means “赛擦音”. 【点评】本题考查英语语音的分类。属概念题，应理解记忆。 3. D 【解析】能够表示如数，时态，级，格这样的语法关系或语法范畴的语素是曲折词缀。曲折词缀——inflectional morpheme 相见书本第52页。 【点评】本题考查形态学中的语素特性，应了解。 4. D 【解析】X-标杆理论中XP可能不仅仅只包含X，它通常包含核心语（head），补语（complement），另外还有指示语（specifier），故选D specifier 详见书本80页。 【点评】本题考查X-标杆理论中XP包含的成分，应了解。 5. C 【解析】意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的，是词汇所有特征的集合，而词汇所制成的客观世界中的事物，所指讨论的是语言形式和非语言世界之间的关系。详见书本第96页。 【点评】本题考查意义与所指两个术语的概念，属于常考点，应识记。 6. C 【解析】言外行为是表达说话人意图的行为，是在说话过程中完成的行为。 【点评】本题考查奥斯汀语言实施行为的3种行为中的言外行为。属重点，应牢记。 7. C 【解析】语音系统的变化包括元音的变化，语音的丧失，元音的增加，语音移位。语音的丧失中的尾音脱落（apocope）指词尾语音成分的去除。如name在古英语中发音为/nɑ:ma: /，而在中世纪英语中发音是/nɑ:m? /,再到现代英语中的/neim/, name 的发音在英语发展中词尾的发音脱落掉了。