27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 2 Linguistics

Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学

2.1 The scope of linguistics:语言学的研究范畴

Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。

It may be a study of the structure of language，the history of language，the functions of language，etc.它可能研究语言的及结构,语言的历史、语言的功能等。

It is a scientific study beacause “it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure”（Dai Wei dong，1988:1）这是一个科学研究因为“这是基于语言数据的系统考察,和语言结构一般理论的研究之上的”

2.1.1 Lyons’ distinctions 莱昂斯的区分

1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics. 普通语言学与描写语言学：

The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.前者处理一般语言，而后者涉及一个特定的语言。

2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics. 共时语言学与历时语言学：

Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.历时语言学追溯了语言的历时发展和记录了发生的连续时间点间的变化，共时语言学提供了一个账户的语言，因为它是某个特定的时间点。

3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics. 理论语言学与应用语言学：

The former copes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.前者处理语言，以求建立一个理论的结构和功能，而后者涉及概念和应用语言学研究的各种实用的任务。

4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.微观语言学与宏观语言学：

The former studies only the structure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.前者只研究语言结构的系统而后者处理所有的与语言相关的事物。

2.1.2 wang gang’s dichotomies王刚的二分法.

1）specific linguistics and general linguistics 具体语言学和普通语言学

2）descriptive linguistics and historical linguistics 描写语言学和历时语言学

3）comparative historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics 历时比较语言学和对比语言学4）microlinguistics and macrolinguistics 微观语言学和宏观语言学

5）theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics 理论语言学和应用语言学

（1）specific linguistics and general linguistics 具体语言学和普通语言学

specific linguistics focuses on the study of any particular language such as Chinese.“具体语言学”以某一具体语言（如汉语）为研究对象。

The study of language as a whole is often looked upon as general linguistics，which deals with the basic concepts，theories，decriptions，models and methods applicable in any linguistic study ，in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.作为一个整体来学习语言被看成是普通语言学。内容涉及到基本概念，理论，学科，例子和方法可适用于任何语言研究，与那些其他领域的研究语言学的分支研究相对照。

（2）descriptive linguistics（Synchronic linguistics study）and historical linguistics（diachronic linguistics study）描写语言学和历史语言学

（3）comparative historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics 历时比较语言学和对比语言学

comparative historical linguistics draws on the special historical comparison in linguistics to study the historical development of some related languages.（languages originating from a uniform ancestry）历时比较语言学”利用语言学中专门的历史比较法研究具有共同来源的所谓“亲属语言”的历史发展。

contrastive linguistics focuses on structural similarities and differences of two or more languages

（relevant or unrelated）by means of comparison and contrastive study.“对比语言学”是对两种以上的语言（不论亲属）通过比较来研究其结构的异同。

（4）microlinguistics and macrolinguistics 微观语言学和宏观语言学

microlinguistics concentrates on the study of all the interior aspects of a language system.“微观语言学”是对语言系统内部各个方面进行的研究。

macrolinguistics falls on the verge of linguistics. It includes the following disciplines：philosophical linguistics，sociolinguistics，psycholinguistics,etc. “宏观语言学”位于语言学的外围，它包括以下学科：哲学语言学、社会语言学、心里语言学等。

（5）theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics 理论语言学和应用语言学

theoretical linguistics ，dealing with the general theory of a language，is in effect a second term of general linguistics.“理论语言学”研究语言的一般理论，是普通语言学的雅称。

applied linguistics can be interpreted in two dimensions . “应用语言学”有广义和狭义之分。

In its broad sense，it involves all the flexible applications of linguistic theories and principles to the solution of such practical problems as machine translation, storing, transmitting and handling of information and the recovery of speech ability and so on. .广义的应用语言学包括所有的灵活应用语言学理论和原则来解决方案这样的实际问题，比如机器翻译、存储、传输和信息处理和语言恢复能力等。In its narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially foreign or second language teaching狭义的应用语言学是指语言学理论和原则的应用语言教学，特别是外国或第二语言教学。

2.2 linguistics：the science语言学的科学性

The scientific method of linguistic study involves the following steps(Wen Qiufang)一般说来，语言学研究的科学程序包括以下几个步骤（文秋芳1995：9）：

1）gather data concerning languages收集语言数据

2）construct a tentative rule based on the data obtained根据所得数据建构一个初步规则

3）examine the tentative rule against the further data and make necessary changes通过更多的数据验证初步规则，并作出必要的修正

4）finalize the rule which must be able to account for all the relevant data最后提出一个能够解释或说明有关数据的规则或理论

★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.

总结：科学的语言研究的过程:它包括四个阶段:收集数据,形成一个假说,测试假说并得出结论。

Mei Deming gives a similar summarization of the process of linguistic study与此类似，梅德明（2003：2）就语言研究的科学步骤总结如下：

1）linguistic facts observed观察语言事实

2）generalizations made about the linguistic facts概括语言事实

3）hypotheses formulated to explain the linguistic facts提出假设解释语言事实

4）the hypotheses tested and examined by more and further observations通过更多的观察检验假设

5）a certain linguistic theory of language constructed建构某一个语言理论

consistency, adequacy and simplicity.

语言学的三个要素：一致性，充分性，简洁性

1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the

theory and the description.”一致性”指在分析过程中前后观点要一致，至少不能前后矛盾。

2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant

generalizations.”充分性”指语言学家应收集并分析所有既得资料或数据，并给予充分的解释，不能丢三落四。

3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.”简洁性”指字进行复杂的分

析或证明当中应力求语言的简洁，不拖泥带水，不冗长乏味。

2.3 sub-branches of linguistics within the language system 语言学的主要分支学科

Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following: 六大分支

1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.研究人类语言的语

音。

2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native

language.研究说话者母语的声音和声音模式

3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.研究单词组成

4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not. 研究一个句子是否

符合语法规则

5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words

and meaning of sentences.研究语言的意义，包括单词和句子的意义。

6) Pragmatics. 语用学

2.4 Some distinctions in linguistics语言学中的重要区别

2.4.1语言和言语(langue and parole)

langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community ,语言(langue)一词指一个社会所有成员所共享的抽象的语言体系

parole refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.言语(parole)指语言的实际运用，即语言的实现。

Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.语言是抽象的，谚语是具体的，是一定时空中的言语事件；Langue is not actually spoken by anyone;parole is always a naturally occurring event.语言不是任何社会个体所讲的东西，言语却总是自然的言语事件中的有机成分；Langue is relatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.语言相对稳定、系统，言语却受个人和情景等因素支配。

2.4.2语言能力和语言运用(competence and performance)

根据Chomsky的解释，

The competence as one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems,and the performance as the use of language in concrete situations. 语言能力是一个理想的语言使用者对其母语的种种规则的了解和掌握，

The performance as the use of language in concrete situation语言运用则是这些知识在实际话语行为中的实现。

Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. “语言能力”使人说出也能听懂无穷多的句子，并且能够识别语病和歧义。A speaker’competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors.”语言能力”是相对稳定的，而”语言运用”常常受制于心理和社会因素。The point is that a speaker’s performance does not always match his competence.因此，一个说话者的”语言运用”并非总是与其”语言能力”相等，有时它们之间有较大的差距。Chomsky develops his theory and distinguishes two types of competence：（1）grammatica l competence（2）pragmatic competence.乔姆斯基发展他的理论并区分两种类型的能力:(1)语法能力(2)语用能力。

Pragmatic competence belongs to the theory of language use，which is concerned with the role played by nonlinguistic information such as background knowledge and personal beliefs in our use of sentences. 语用能力属于语言的理论使用,这是关于非语言信息所扮演的角色,比如在我们使用的句子中的背景知识和个人信仰。

Grammatical competence refers to the linguistic abilities of native speakers of a language

that enable them to speak and understand their language.语法能力指的是母语使用者可以说话和理解他们的语言的语言能力。

2.4.3共时和历时研究（synchronic and diachronic）

The description of a language at some point of time(as if it stopped developing)is a synchronic study(synchrony).“共时研究”也称描写语言学，研究语言在某个时期内相对稳定的系统。

The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A diachronic study studies the historical development of language over a period of time.”历时研究”也称历史语言学，研究语言在不同时期之内的发展和演变。

2.4.4口头语和书面语(speech and writing)

Speech is primary for the following reasons.Genetically children learn to speak much earli er than they learn to read and write.functionally，the spoken form is more often used than the written form.Historically，languages were spoken before they were written down.Finall y，written forms just represent in one way or another the speech sounds，individual sound s，as in English and French ，syllables as in Japanese.口语是第一性的原因如下。从遗传学上讲，孩子学会说早于学会读和写。在功能上,口语形式比书面形式更为常用。从历史上看,在他们把所说的语言写下来。最后,书面形式只是代表某种方式的语音,个人的声音,就像在英语和法语中,代表音节在日语中。

In contrast to speech，the spoken form of language，writing as written codes，gives language new scope and uses that speech does not have.相比口语, 语言的口语形式,书面语可以写代码,使语言编写新的范围和使用这是口语不具有的。

Firstly，messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other.首先,消息可以通过空间,这样人们就可以相互通信。

Secondly，messages can be carried through time thereby，so that people of our time can read.其次,消息可以通过时间从而,这样人们可以阅读。

Thirdly，oral messages are readily subject to distortion，either intentional or unintenti onal，while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.

第三,口头信息很容易受到失真,无论是有意还是无意,而书面消息允许和鼓励重复不变的阅读。

2.4.5语言行为潜势和实际语言行为(linguistic behaviour potential and actual linguistic behaviour)

People actually says （his actual linguistic behaviour）on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.人们实际上(他的实际语言行为)在某些场合跟某一个人说话是实际的语言行为。这个可能的语言项目的每一句话都是语言行为潜力。

2.4.6横组合和纵聚合关系（syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation）

A syntagmatic relation describes the horizontal dimension of a language while a par adigmatic relation describes the vertical dimension of a language.一个横组合关系描述了一种语言的水平维度而纵聚合关系描述一种语言的竖直维度。

2.4.7言语交际和非言语交际(verbal communication and nonverbal communication)

Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.

通常使用语言作为一种信息传播方式称为言语交际。我们不使用语言来传达意义的方式被称为非言语交际。

2.4.8传统语法和现代语言学（traditional grammar and modern linguistics）traditional grammar as a pre-20th century language description and pre-linguistic product o f research，was based upon earlier grammar of Latin or Greek，and laid emphasis on corr ectness，literary excellence，the use of Latin models，and the priority of the written langu age.Prescription was its key tone. 传统语法作为语言描述与前20世纪前语言产品的研究,是基于语法

的早些时候拉丁语和希腊语,强调正确性,优秀文学、拉丁语模式的应用和优先考虑书面语。惯例是基调。Modern linguistics，in spite of theoretical diversities，is primarily descriptive.Structuralist li nguistics describes linguistic features in term of structures and systems. 现代语言学,尽管理论上的多样性,主要是描述性的。结构主义语言学描写语言的结构和系统。

Transformational generative grammar（TG grammar）sees language as a system of innate r ules.M.A.K.Halliday’s systemic-functional linguistics sees language as an instrument used to perform various functions in social interaction.转换生成语法(TG语法)把语言作为一个系统天生的规则。韩礼德的系统功能语言学把语言作为一个工具用于执行社会互动中的各种功能。

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27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology

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Competence and performance Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. 4. Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. 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But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. 7. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop. 8. 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Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. 10. Sense and reference Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. 11. Context It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 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