Chapter 3 Lexicon
3.1 What is word?
1. What is a lexeme?
A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can
be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”
2. What is a morpheme?
A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between
expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes”has two morphemes: “box”and “es,”neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.
3. What is an allomorph?
An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.
4. What is a word?
A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself,
a complete utterance in speech or writing.
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”
1. A physically definable unit
2. The common factor underlying a set of forms
3. A grammatical unit
3.1.2 Identification of words
1. Stability
Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word
have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative
positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy.
Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged
as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.
2. Relative uninterruptibility
By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is
to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment:
dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts
of a word: * dis appoint ment.
3. A minimum free form
This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free
form,”the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself,
a complete utterance.
3.1.3 Classification of words
1. Variable and invariable words
In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word
remains relatively constant. E.g. follow –follows –following –
followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when,
seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.
2. Grammatical words and lexical words
Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns,
are grammatical words.
Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e.
those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.
3. Closed-class words and open-class words
Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly
added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.
are all closed items.
Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs,
adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.
4. Word class
This is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely
defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced
into linguistic analysis.
(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker
“to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in
phrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.
(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because
of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of
a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word
class.
(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as
replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example,
in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.
A: I hope you can come.
B: I hope so.
(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before
the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the
kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be
divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central
determiners and postdeterminers.
3.2 The formation of word
3.2.1 Morpheme and morphology
Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
3.2.2 Types of morphemes
1. Free morpheme and bound morpheme
Free morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.
Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.
2. Root, affix and stem
A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed.
An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be
used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or
combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed
without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the
word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism,
after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root
nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound.
E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive,
conceive and perceive.A few English roots may have both free and bound
variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep-
in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.
A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an
inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend-in friends and
friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem
can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may
contain a root and a derivational affix.
3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix
Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person,
finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class
of the stems to which they are attached.
The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional
morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference
between them with the following ways:
(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate
grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s,etc.
Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single
word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the
lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.
(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word
they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational
affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small
and smallness for the former, and that between brother and
brotherhood for the latter.
(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic
linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within
the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy
likes to navigate on the internet.”is determined by the
subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes
are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. The
choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to
talk about the property “clever”or we want to talk about “the
state of being clever.”
(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which
are always word final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivational
affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher,etc.
3.2.3 Inflection and word formation
1. Inflection
Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person,
finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class
of the stems to which they are attached.
2. Word formation
Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the
compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).
(1) Compound
Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce
a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway,
rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.
The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it
is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually,
the first member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns:
self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive,
machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V
+ N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and
V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck,
walk-in, etc.
(2) Derivation
Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of
the original word either changed or unchanged.
3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology
1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.
2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch of
linguistics referring to the analysis and classification of the
phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, and
correspondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the
appearance of phonemes. It is also called morphonology or
morphonemics.
3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a
result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more
specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.
4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by
one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the
sounds become less alike, or different.
3.3 Lexical change
3.3.1 Lexical change proper
1. Invention
Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items,
their producers or their brand names.
2. Blending
Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two
words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and
the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of
the two words.
3. Abbreviation / clipping
A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial
part or cutting both the initial parts of the original words.
4. Acronym
Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.
5. Back-formation
Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where
a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer
form already in the language.
6. Analogical creation
The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation
of some English verbs.
7. Borrowing
English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish,
Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this
process.
3.3.2 Phonological change
1. Loss
The loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may
also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed words.
2. Addition
Sounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.
3. Metathesis
Metathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which
was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.
4. Assimilation
Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called
“contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.
3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change
1. Morphological change
The form of inflectional affixes may also change.
2. Syntactical change
There are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words
3.3.4 Semantic change
1. Broadening
Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.
2. Narrowing
Contrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.
3. Meaning shift
All semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e. the change of meaning has nothing
to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.
4. Class shift
By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This
process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or
conversion.
5. Folk etymology
Folk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning
of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly
taken to be analogous.
3.3.5 Orthographic change
Changes can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt
set off graphitic changes.
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is
第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点: 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点: 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念;语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引:
I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar
Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology:it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs(发音器官). ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)
Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background
9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition
-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?
Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.eg.the dog barks wowwow in english but 汪汪汪in chinese.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.eg.dog-woof(but not w-oo-f)Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Eg. An experiment of bee communication.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 3. Origin of language The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. 4.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings. 5. Main branches of linguistics ?Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. ?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. ?Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes. ?Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. ?Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is concerned with both meanings of words as lexical items and levels of language below the word and above it. ?Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured. 6.Important distinctions in linguistics 1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive For example, ―Don’t say X.‖ is a prescriptive command; ―People don’t say X.‖ is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Lyons 2)Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. 3)Langue & parole langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). Saussure 4)Competence and performance According to Chomsky,a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence 7.consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or
第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点: 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点: 语言学与语言教学的关系;语言学与语言学习;语言学与教学大纲设计;二语学习者的主要障碍;对比分析与错误分析;中介语;语料库语言学与语言教学等。
本章内容索引: I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process
英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer
胡壮麟语言学复习及答案 Chapter I In troducti on I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1.Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage. 2.L in guistics studies particular Ian guage, not Ian guages in gen eral. 3.A scie ntific study of Ian guage is based on what the lin guist thi nks. 4.In the study of lin guistics, hypotheses formed should be based on Ian guage facts and checked aga inst the observed facts. 5.Gen eral li nguistics is gen erally the study of Ian guage as a whole. 6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons, models and methods applicable in any lin guistic study. 7.Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to con vey meaning in com muni cati on. 8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meanin gful senten ces. 9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the comb in ati on of morphemes into words and words into senten ces. 11.The study of meaning in Ian guage is known as sema ntics. 12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13.Pragmatics is differe nt from sema ntics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolati on, but in con text. 14.Social cha nges can ofte n bring about Ian guage cha nges. 15.Sociolinguistics is the study of Ianguage in relation to society. 16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17.Moder n lin guistics is differe nt from traditi onal grammar. 18. A diachronic study of Ianguage is the description of Ianguage at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written Ianguage as primary, not the written Ian guage. 20.The disti ncti on betwee n compete nee and performa nee was proposed by F. de Saussure. II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the
Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind 6.1 Introduction 1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. 2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual by operation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. 3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). 4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. 5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. On the other hand, the psychology of language deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication, includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions. 6. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mind. 7. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word. 6.1.1 Evidence 1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies. 2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and children on the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other. The primary assumption with regard to aphasic patient that a breakdown in some part of language could lead to an understanding of which components might be independent of others. 6.1.2 Current issues 1. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others. 2. Cohort theory: The cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with written materials as well. Several experiments have supported this view of word
2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学:is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学:is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号,用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭,或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出 排出,一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦,这样发生的音叫辅音 10. Coarticulation协同发音: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are