曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理

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Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives?

Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knives in steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives.

Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do?

The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting in their own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole.

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Q1How is economics like a science?

Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to run controlled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments.

Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea of “efficiency〞?

The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A in Figure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good.

Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that. Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptive and make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example. Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative: The government should keep the growth rate of money low.

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Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ.

Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm, or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good.

Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2.

A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producing those goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilities frontiers.

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Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach?

Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him. Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income.

Q8 Dose a change in producers’technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?

A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to a movement along the supply curve.

Q9 Define the equilibrium of a market. Describe the forces that move a market towards its equilibrium. The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below the equilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.

Q11Describe the role of prices in market economies.

Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.

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Q2 List and explain the four determinants of the price elasticity of demand discussed in the chapter. The determinants of the price elasticity of demand include how available close substitutes are, whether the good is a necessity or a luxury, how broadly defined the market is, and the time horizon. Luxury goods have greater price elastic ties than necessities, goods with close substitutes have greater elastic ties, goods in more narrowly defined markets have greater elastic ties, and the elasticity of demand is higher the longer the time horizon.

Q4 On a supply-and-demand diagram, show equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers.

Figure 1 presents a supply-and-demand diagram, showing equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity, and the total revenue received by producers. Total revenue equals the equilibrium price times the equilibrium quantity, which is the area of the rectangle shown in the figure.

Figure 1

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Q2Which causes a shortage of a good—a price ceiling or a price floor? Which causes a surplus?

A shortage of a good arises when there is a binding price ceiling. A surplus of a good arises when there is a binding price floor.

Q6How does a tax on a good affect the price paid by buyers, and the quantity sold?

A tax on a good raises the price buyers pay, lowers the price sellers receive, and reduces the quantity sold.

Q7What determines how the burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers? Why?

The burden of a tax is divided between buyers and sellers depending on the elasticity of demand and supply. Elasticity represents the willingness of buyers or sellers to leave the market, which in turns depends on their alternatives. When a good is taxed, the side of the market with fewer good alternatives cannot easily leave the market and thus bears more of the burden of the tax.

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Q1Explain how buyer’s willingness to pay, consumer’ surplus, and the demand curve are related. Buyers' willingness to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals each buyer's willingness to pay less the price of the good.

Q2 Explain how seller’s costs, producer’s surplus, and the supply curve are related.

Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price minus each sellers' costs.

Figure 4

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Q2 Give an example of an opportunity cost that accountant might not count as a cost. Why would the accountant ignore the cost?

An accountant would not count the owner’s opportunity cost of alternative employment as an accounting cost. An example is given in the text in which Helen runs a cookie business, but she could instead work as a computer programmer. Because she's working in her cookie factory, she gives up the opportunity to earn $100 per hour as a computer programmer. The accountant ignores this opportunity cost because no money flow occurs. But the cost is relevant to Helen's decision to run the cookie factory.

Q3What is marginal product, and what does it means if it is diminishing?

Marginal product is the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input. Diminishing marginal product means that the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.

Q8Defind economies of scale and explain why they might arise. Define diseconomies of scale and explain why then might arise.

Economies of scale exist when long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of specialization among workers. Diseconomies of scale exist when long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increases, which occurs because of coordination problems inherent in a large organization.

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Q2Draw the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price, explain how the firm chooses the level of output that maximizes profit.Figure 2 shows the cost curves for a typical firm. For a given price (such as P*), the level of output that maximizes profit is the output where marginal cost equals price (Q*), as long as price is greater than average variable cost at that point (in the short run), or greater

than average total cost (in the long run).

Figure 2

Q6 Does a firm’s price equal marginal cost in the short run, in the long run, or both? Explain. The firm's price equals the minimum of average total cost only in the long run. In the short run, price may be greater than average total cost, in which case the firm is making profits, or price may be less than average total cost, in which case the firm is making losses. But the situation is different in the long run. If firms are making profits, other firms will enter the industry, which will lower the price of the good. If firms are making losses, they will exit the industry, which will raise the price of the good. Entry or exit continues until firms are making neither profits nor losses. At that point, price equals average total cost.

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Q3Why is monopolist’s marginal revenue less than the price of its goods? Can marginal revenue be negative? Explain.

A monopolist's marginal revenue is less than the price of its product because: (1) its demand curve is the market demand curve, so (2) to increase the amount sold, the monopolist must lower the price of its good for every unit it sells. (3) This cut in prices reduces revenue on the units it was already selling.

A monopolist's marginal revenue can be negative because to get purchasers to buy an additional unit of the good, the firm must reduce its price on all units of the good. The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases revenue, but the decline in price decreases revenue. The overall effect depends on the elasticity of the demand curve. If the demand curve is inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative. Q4Draw the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curve for a monopolist. Show the profit-maximizing level of output. Show the profit-maximizing price.

Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. The intersection of the marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, Q m. The demand curve then shows the profit-maximizing price, P m.

Figure 1

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Q1If a group of sellers could form a cartel, what quantity and price would they try to set?

If a group of sellers could form a cartel, they would try to set quantity and price like a monopolist. They would set quantity at the point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost, and set price at the corresponding point on the demand curve.

Q5What is the prisoners’dilemma and what does it have to do with oligopoly?

The prisoners' dilemma is a game between two people or firms that illustrates why it is difficult for opponents to cooperate even when cooperation would make them all better off. Each person or firm has

a great incentive to cheat on any cooperative agreement to make himself or itself better off.

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Q2Draw a diagram of the long-run equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market. How is price related to average total cost? How is price related to marginal cost?

In Figure 2, a firm has demand curve D1and marginal-revenue curve MR1. The firm is making profits because at quantity Q1, price (P1) is above average total cost (ATC). Those profits induce other firms to enter the industry, causing the demand curve to shift to D2 and the marginal-revenue curve to shift to MR2. The result is a decline in quantity to Q2, at which point the price (P2) equals average total cost (ATC), so profits are now zero.

Figure 2

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Q1 Explain why an economy’s income must equal its expenditure.

An economy's income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller. Thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers.

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Q2 Describe the three problems that make the consumer price index an imperfect measure of the cost of living.

The three problems in the consumer price index as a measure of the cost of living are: (1) substitution bias, which arises because people substitute toward goods that have become relatively less expensive;

(2) the introduction of new goods, which are not reflected quickly in the CPI; and (3) unmeasured quality change.

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Q2List and describe four determinants of productivity.

The four determinants of productivity are: (1) physical capital, which is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services; (2) human capital, which consists of the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience; (3) natural resources, which are inputs into production that are provided by nature; and (4) technological knowledge, which is society’s understandi ng of the best ways to produce goods and services.

Questions are chosen from problems and applications.

Chapter 1: Q9

By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. If you divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than it would take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.

Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and they exchange some wine for some clothes. Chapter 2: Q2

a. Figure 6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter. It is bowed out because when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce butter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economy’s resources are being used to produce guns, the frontier is very flat. When the economy is producing a lot of guns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to make guns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing a lot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used to make butter, so each unit of guns given up yields a small increase in the production of butter. Thus, the production possibilities frontier is steep.

b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside the production possibilities frontier. Po int B is feasible but inefficient because it’s inside the production possibilities frontier.

Figure 6

c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter. The Doves might choose

a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.

d. If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount, the Hawks would get a bigger peace dividend because the production possibilities frontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of a given number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in the quantity of butter produced than when starting at point D.

Chapter 3: Q4

a. Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, the opportunity cost of a car is 15 bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of a bushel of wheat is 1/15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of each other.

b. See Figure 4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce a total of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce a total of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the production possibilities frontier. Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same, the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.

If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devoted to car production. That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who will produce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushels per worker). This is shown as point A on Figure 4.

c. If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues to consume 10 million cars, then Canada will need to produce a total of 20 million cars. So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume 200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as point B in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets the same number of cars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.

Figure 4

Chapter 4: Q1

a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges. This can be seen in Figure

6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for oranges. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price.

b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so demand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer people travel to the Caribbean, since northern climes are more pleasant. The result, as shown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of Caribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figure shows.

Figure 6a Figure 7b

c. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affecte

d. Since much oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of gasolin

e. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating a gas-guzzling automobile, like a Cadillac, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Cadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will not find Cadillacs as attractive. In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.

Figure 8c Figure 9c

Chapter 5: Q2

a. For business travelers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(2,000 - 1,900)/1,950]/[(250 - 200)/225] = 0.05/0.22 = 0.23. For vacationers, the price elasticity of demand when the price of tickets rises from $200 to $250 is [(800 - 600)/700] / [(250 - 200)/225] = 0.29/0.22 = 1.32.

b. The price elasticity of demand for vacationers is higher than the elasticity for business travelers because vacationers can choose more easily a different mode of transportation (like driving or taking the train). Business travelers are less likely to do so since time is more important to them and their schedules are less adaptable.

Chapter 6: Q2

a. The imposition of a binding price floor in the cheese market is shown in Figure 3. In the absence of the price floor, the price would be P1 and the quantity would be Q1. With the floor set at P f, which is greater than P1, the quantity demanded is Q2, while quantity supplied is Q3, so there is a surplus of cheese in the amount Q3– Q2.

b. The farmers’ comp laint that their total revenue has declined is correct if demand is elasti

c. With elastic demand, the percentage decline in quantity would exceed the percentage rise in price, so total revenue would decline.

c. If the government purchases all the surplus cheese at the price floor, producers benefit and taxpayers lose. Producers would produce quantity Q3of cheese, and their total revenue would increase substantially.

But consumers would buy only quantity Q2of cheese, so they are in the same position as before. Taxpayers lose because they would be financing the purchase of the surplus cheese through higher taxes.

Figure 3a

Chapter 7: Q8

a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.

Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G –B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Since consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.

Figure 14A Figure 15b

b. Since adding machines are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that people substitute computers for adding machines, shifting the demand for adding machines to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of adding machines. Consumer surplus in the adding-machine market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Adding machine producers are sad about technological advance in computers because their producer surplus declines.

c. Since software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.

d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest men, since his company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.

Figure 16

Chapter 13: Q4

a. The following table shows the marginal product of each hour spent fishing:

Hours Fish Fixed Cost Variable Cost Total Cost Marginal Product

$10 $0 $10 ---

1 10 10 5 15 10

2 18 10 10 20 8

3 2

4 10 1

5 25 6

4 28 10 20 30 4

5 30 10 25 25 2

b. Figure 7 graphs the fisherman's production function. The production function becomes flatter as the number of hours spent fishing increases, illustrating diminishing marginal product.

Figure 7b Figure 8c

c. The table shows the fixed cost, variable cost, and total cost of fishing.

Figure 8 shows the fisherman's total-cost curve. It slopes up because catching additional fish takes additional time. The curve is convex because there are diminishing returns to fishing time each additional hour spent fishing yields fewer additional fish.

Chapter 14: Q9

a. Figure 9 illustrates the situation in the U.S. textile industry. With no international trade, the market is in long-run equilibrium. Supply intersects demand at quantity Q1and price $30, with a typical firm producing output q1.

Figure 9

b. The effect of imports at $25 is that the market supply curve follows the old supply curve up to a price of $25, then becomes horizontal at that price. As a result, demand exceeds domestic supply, so the country imports textiles from other countries. The typical domestic firm now reduces its output from q1 to q2, incurring losses, since the large fixed costs imply that average total cost will be much higher than the price.

c. In the long run, domestic firms will be unable to compete with foreign firms because their costs are too high. All the domestic firms will exit the industry and other countries will supply enough to satisfy the entire domestic deman

d.

Chapter 15: Q4

a. Figure 5 illustrates the market for groceries when there are many competing supermarkets with constant marginal cost. Output is Q C, price is P C, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is zero, and total surplus is area A.

Figure 5a Figure 6b

b. If the supermarkets merge, Figure 6 illustrates the new situation. Quantity declines from Q C to Q M and price rises to P M. Area A in Figure 5 is equal to area B + C + D + E + F in Figure 6. Consumer surplus is now area B + C, producer surplus is area D + E, and total surplus is area B + C + D + E. Consumers transfer the amount of area D + E to producers and the deadweight loss is area F.

Chapter 16: Q2

a. OPEC members were trying to reach an agreement to cut production so they could raise the price.

b. They were unable to agree on cutting production because each country has an incentive to cheat on any agreement. The turmoil is a decline in the price of oil because of increased production.

c. OPEC would like Norway and Britain to join their cartel so they could act like a monopoly.

Chapter 23: Q1

a. Consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by a household.

Investment increases because a house is an investment good.

Consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, but investment decreases because the car in Ford’s inventory had been counted as an investment good until it was sold.

Consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household.

Government purchases increase because the government spent money to provide a good to the public. Consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household, but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.

Investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.

Chapter 24: Q4

a. Since the increase in cost was considered a quality improvement, there was no increase registered in the CPI.

b. The argument in favor of this is that consumers are getting a better good than before, so the price increase equals the improvement in quality. The problem is that the increased cost might exceed the value of the improvement in air quality, so consumers are worse off. In this case, it would be better for the CPI to at least partially reflect the higher cost.

Chapter 25: Q4

The opportunity cost of investing in capital is the loss of consumption that results from redirecting resources towards investment. Over-investment in capital is possible because of diminishing marginal returns. A country can "over-invest" in capital if people would prefer to have higher consumption spending and less future growth. The opportunity cost of investing in human capital is also the loss of consumption that is needed to provide the resources for investment. A country could "over-invest" in human capital if people were too highly educated for the jobs they could get for example, if the best job a Ph.D. in philosophy could find is managing a restaurant.

曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解

第3章相互依存性与贸易的好处 3.1 复习笔记 跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。 以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。 1．专业化与贸易 经济学是研究为满足社会需求而如何进行生产和分配的科学。在全球经济下，人们可以选择自给自足，也可以选择专业化生产，相互之间进行贸易，并导致经济相互依存。国家和个人可以通过专业化生产和贸易解决由于稀缺性引起的问题，并从中获得好处。 每个人都消费本国和世界各国许多其他人所生产的物品与劳务。相互依存和贸易之所以合意，是因为它可以使每个人享用更多数量和品种的物品与劳务。 2．比较优势原理 有两种方法比较两个人在生产一种物品时的能力。如果生产者生产一种物品所需要的投入较少，则可以说该生产者在生产该物品上有绝对优势；如果一个生产者以低于另一个生产者的机会成本生产一种物品，则可以说该生产者在生产该物品上有比较优势。专业化和贸易的好处不是基于绝对优势，而是基于比较优势。 （1）绝对优势 绝对优势理论是英国经济学家、资产阶级经济学古典学派的主要奠基人之一、国际分工和国际贸易理论的创始者亚当·斯密（Adam Smith）提出的。绝对优势理论认为，自由贸易会引起国际分工，国际分工的基础是有利的自然禀赋，或后天有利的生产条件，它们都可以使一国在生产上和对外贸易方面处于比其他国家绝对有利的地位。如果各国都按照各自有利的生产条件进行分工和交换，将会使各国的资源、劳动力和资本得到最有效的利用，这会大大提高劳动生产率和增加物质财富。 绝对优势比较的是生产一种物品所需要的投入量，生产一种物品需要资源少（比如说劳动时间少）的生产者称为在生产那种物品时具有绝对优势。这就是说，效率最高的生产者（有最高生产率的生产者）有绝对优势。 （2）机会成本和比较优势 绝对优势比较的是每个生产者的实际成本，而比较优势则是比较每个生产者生产的机会成本。机会成本指为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西，生产一种物品机会成本较少的生产者在生产这种物品时有比较优势。需要注意的是，同一个人不可能在生产两种物品中都有比较优势，除非两个人有相同的机会成本，因为一种物品的机会成本是另外一种物品的机会成本的倒数。若一个人生产一种物品的机会成本比较高，那么他生产另一种物品的机会成本必然比较低。 （3）比较优势与贸易 无论绝对优势如何，如果生产者生产每种物品的机会成本不同，每个生产者就应该专门生产其机会成本低的产品。这就是说，每个生产者都应该生产他们有比较优势的物品，然后

曼昆《经济学原理》宏观部分重点

23一国收入的衡量 一、经济的收入和支出 ·GDP衡量：经济中所有人的总收入和用于经济中物品与劳务产出的总支出。·对一个整体经济而言，收入必定等于支出。 ·GDP衡量货币流量。 ·两种计算GDP方法：加总家庭对于物品和劳务的总支出或加总企业支付工资、租金和利润的总收入。 一、国内生产总值的衡量 1、国内生产总值：在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的市场价值。 2、几点说明 ·GDP使用市场价格。 ·GDP不包括非法生产与销售的东西和家庭内的生产和消费。 ·GDP只包括最终物品的价值。 ·GDP包括有形的物品和无形的劳务。 ·GDP不包括过去（一年或一个季度之外）生产的东西的交易。 ·用两种算法算出的GDP差额为统计误差。 3、其他收入衡量指标 ·国民生产总值GNP：一国永久居民所赚到的总收入。=GDP+本国公民在国外赚到的收入-外国人在本国赚到的收入 ·国民生产净值NNP：=GNP–折旧（经济中设备和建筑物存量的磨损或消耗）·国民收入：一国居民在物品与劳务生产中赚到的总收入。=NNP–间接的企业税+企业补贴 ·个人收入：家庭和非公司制企业得到的收入。=国民收入–留存收益（公司获得但未支付给其所有者的收入）-公司所得税–对社会保障的支付+家庭从其持有的政府债券中得到的利息收入+家庭从政府转移支付项目中得到的收入 三、GDP组成部分 ·GDP=消费+投资+政府购买+净出口=C+I+G+NX=Y ·消费：家庭除购买新住房之外用于物品与劳务的支出。 ·投资：用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出。·政府购买（政府消费支出和总投资）：地方、州和联邦政府用于物品与劳务的支出。·转移支付：改变家庭收入却没有反映经济的生产，不用于交换现期生产的物品与劳务，不计入政府购买。 ·净出口：外国人对国内生产的物品的支出（出口）–国内居民对外国物品的支出（进口）。

曼昆-经济学原理-概念归纳

曼昆《经济学原理》名词解释归纳——上下册 一、经济学十大原理 1、稀缺性：社会资源的有限性。 2、经济学：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源。 3、效率：社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最多东西的特性。 4、平等：经济成果在社会成员中公平分配的特性。 5、机会成本：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。 理性人：系统而有目的地尽最大努力实现起目标的人。 6、边际变动：对行动计划微小的增量调整。 激励：引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。 7、市场经济：当许多企业和家庭在物品与劳务市场上相互交易时，通过他们的分散决策配 置资源的经济。 8、市场失灵：市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况。 9、外部性：一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响。 10、市场势力：一个经济活动者（或经济活动者的一个小集团）对市场价格有显著影响的能 力。 11、生产率：一个工人一小时所生产的物品与劳务量。 12、通货膨胀：经济中物价总水平的上升。 13、菲利普斯曲线：通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍。 14、经济周期：就业和生产等经济活动的波动（就是生产这类经济活动的波动。） 二、像经济学家一样思考 15、循环流向图：一个说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型。 16、生产可能性边界：表示一个经济在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产量 的各种组合的图形。 17、微观经济学：研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们在市场上的相互交易。 18、宏观经济学：研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。 19、实证表述：企图描述世界是什么的观点。 20、规范描述：企图描述世界应该如何运行的观点。 三、绝对依存性与贸易的好处 21、绝对优势：根据生产率比较一种物品的生产者。 22、比较优势：根据机会成本比较一种物品的生产者。 23、进口：国外生产而在国内销售的物品。 24、出口：国内生产而在国外销售的物品。 四、供给与需求的市场力量 25、市场：由某种物品或劳务的买者与卖者组成的一个群体。 26、竞争市场：有许多买者与卖者，以致于每个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场。 27、需求量：买者愿意而且能够购买的一种物品量。 28、需求定理：认为在其他条件相同时，一种物品价格上升，该物品需求量减少的观点。 29、需求表：表示一种物品价格与需求量之间关系的表格。

曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记(第11章 公共物品和公共资源)

曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版） 第11章公共物品和公共资源 复习笔记 跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。 以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。 一、不同类型的物品 1．相关概念： （1）排他性：一种物品具有的可以阻止一个人使用该物品的特性。 （2）消费者的竞争性：一个人使用一种物品将减少其他人对该物品的使用的特性。 （3）私人物品（private goods）：消费中既有排他性又有竞争性的物品。 （4）公共资源：有竞争性但无排他性的物品。 （5）公共物品：既无排他性又无竞争性的物品。 （6）自然垄断：当一种物品在消费中有排他性但没有竞争性时，就是自然垄断的物品。 2．四种类型的物品 根据物品的排他性和消费竞争性可以将物品分为四种类型，如图11-1所示。物品在消费中有没有排他性或竞争性往往是一个程度问题，有时候界限模糊，难以区分。 图11-1 四种类型的物品 二、公共物品 1．搭便车者问题 搭便车者：得到一种物品的利益但避开为此付费的人。 由于公共物品没有排他性，搭便车者问题的存在就使私人市场无法提供公共物品。但是，政府可以潜在地解决这个问题。如果政府确信一种公共物品的总利益大于成本，它就可以提供该公共物品，并用税收收入对其进行支付，从而可以使每个人的状况变好。 2．一些重要的公共物品 考虑三种重要的公共物品：国防、基础研究、反贫困。

曼昆中级宏观经济学知识点整理 4 失业

第四章、失业 第一节、失去工作，寻找工作，以及自然失业率 一、失业率 L代表劳动力，E代表就业工人数，U失业工人数 L=E+U →失业率是U/L 假设劳动力L是固定的，把注意力放在劳动力中的个体在就业E与失业U之间的转换上。设s代表离职率(rate of job separation)，即每个月失去或离开自己的工作的就业者的比例。设f代表入职率(rate of job finding)，即每个月找到工作的失业者的比例。离职率s和入职率f共同决定了失业率。 二、稳定状态下的失业率 第二节、失业的基本原因 失业的两个基本原因：工作搜寻和工资刚性 一、摩擦性失业 1、定义 由于劳动力缺乏流动性，信息交流不完全以及市场组织不健全所造成的失业。这种失业一般发生在人们处于不同地区、职业或生命周期的不同阶段，因而工作不停变动的场合。 考虑到劳动力流动的寻常性，摩擦性失业是不可避免的。 2、产生的原因 ①产品需求引起的产品对劳动力需求的转变；②地区间劳动力需求的变动。

3、公共政策鱼摩擦性失业 （1）公共政策降低自然失业率 ①政府就业机构的信息提供；②政府资助再培训项目。 （2）公共政策提高自然失业率 ①失业保障项目→降低寻找新工作压力 二、结构性失业 1、定义 由于经济结构的变化，劳动力供给和需求在职业、技能、产业、地区分布等方面不协调所引起的失业。其表现为既有失业，又有职位空缺，失业者因为技能或所处地点不当，无法填补当前职位空缺。 2、引发结构性失业的原因 （1）最低工资法 当政府阻止工资下降到均衡水平时，政府就造成了工资刚性。对一些工人，特别是不熟练的工人和缺乏经验的工人，最低工资将他们的工资提高到均衡水平之上。因此，最低工资减少了企业对劳动的需求。 可以通过劳动收入所得税扣除→减少政府税收收入 （2）工会和集体议价 工会领导人与企业管理层之间的谈判，常常把工资提高到均衡水平以上。工会和工会化威胁引起的失业是不同群体的工人——局内人(insiders)与局外人(outsiders)——之间存在冲突的一个例子。 局内人：那些已经被企业雇佣的工人，一般都想使企业的工资保持在高水平； 局外人：失业者，承担了高工资的部分代价，因为他们在较低工资水平时可能会被雇佣。

曼昆《经济学原理》(微观经济学分册)整理

第1章经济学十大原理 1.经济学 经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。 稀缺性是指社会拥有的资源是有限的，因此不能生产人们希望拥有的所有物品与服务。正因为稀缺性的客观存在，就存在着资源的有限性和人类欲望的无限性之间的矛盾。因此，经济学家研究人们如何做出决策，如何相互影响以及分析影响整个经济的力量和趋势。经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。 2.人们如何做出决策 由于-个经济的行为反映了组成这个经济的个人的行为，所以我们的经济学学习就应该从个人做出决策的四个原理开始： 原理一：人们而临权衡取舍 为了得到一件喜爱的东西，通常就不得不放弃另一件喜爱的东西。做出决策要求人们在一个目标与另-个目标之间权衡取舍。 效率（efficient）：是指社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大的利益。 平等（equality）：是指将这些利益平均地分配给社会成员。 原理二：某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西 在很多情况下，某种行动的成本并不像乍看时那明显。一种东西的机会成本是为了得到这种东曲所放弃的东西。 机会成本（opportunity）：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。 原理三：理性人考虑边际量 经济学家通常假设，人是理性的。在机会成本为既定的条件下，理性人（rational people）系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标。 边际变动（marginal change）：对现有行动计划的微小增量调整。 理性人通常比较边际收益（marginal benefit）与边际成本（marginal cost）来做决策。 当且仅当一种行为的边际收益大于边际成本，一个理性决策者才会采取这种行为。 原理四：人们会对激胁做出反应 激励（incentive）是引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西（如惩罚或奖励的预期）。由于理性人通过比较成本与收益做出决策，所以，他们会对激励做出反应。当成本或收益变动时，他们的行为也会随之发生改变。 3.人们如何相互影响 在人生的旅途中，人们的许多决策不仅影响自己，而且还会影响其他人。以下三个原理是关于人们如何相互交易的： 原理五:：贸易可以使毎个人的状况都变得更好 贸易使毎个人可以专门从丰自己最擅长的活动。通过与他人贸易，人们可以按较低的成本获得各种各样的物品与服务。与家庭一样，国家也能从相互贸易中获益。贸易使各国可以专门从事自己最擅长的活动，并享有种类更多的物品与服务。

曼昆十大经济学原理

曼昆十大经济学原理 1. 人们面临权衡取舍的局面。 人们用有限的资源满足无限的需求。由于资源是有限的，所以人们必须进行取舍，即 在不同的需求之间进行选择。这个原则称为权衡取舍原则。 2. 某种东西的成本是为了得到它所放弃的东西。 成本不仅仅是一个好东西的价格。它是为了得到这个好东西所必须放弃的其他东西的 价值。这个原则称为机会成本原则。 3. 理性人考虑边际量。 理性人会考虑边际量，即增加或减少一单位的某种东西所带来的额外收益和额外成本。这个原则称为边际原则。 4. 人们会对刺激做出反应。 人们对经济激励做出反应。如果政府提高消费税，消费者可能会购买更少的商品。这 个原则称为激励原则。 5. 贸易会使所有人受益。 贸易可以使所有人都受益。通过特定领域的专业化，不同的人可以生产他们所擅长的 东西，然后交换这些东西。这个原则称为贸易原则。 6. 市场通常是有效的。 市场通常是有效的分配资源，因为价格可以反映买家和卖家之间的相对价值。而且， 价格也会为生产者和消费者提供有关供给和需求的信号。这个原则称为市场效率原则。 7. 政府有时可以提高市场效率。 尽管市场通常是有效的，有时政府可以增加效率。这可能是因为市场存在某些外部性 或公共物品，这些通常被市场无法有效配置。这个原则称为政府干预原则。 8. 没有免费的午餐。 虽然经济学是有关稀缺资源分配的学科，但这并不意味着有免费的午餐。任何看似免 费的东西，实际上都有其成本，即某人必须为其支付代价。这个原则称为没有免费午餐原则。 9. 价格上涨会导致需求下降。

当价格上涨时，需求通常会下降，因为较高的价格意味着数量需求的增加。这个原则 称为需求曲线原则。 10. 社会福利不能精确衡量。 虽然经济学旨在提高社会福利，但社会福利无法精确衡量。人们有着不同的观点和价 值观，因此社会福利的衡量是主观的。这个原则称为社会福利难以衡量原则。首先是“机 会成本原则”。该原则强调，当我们做出某种选择时，我们必须放弃其他的选择机会。我 们在做决策时应该考虑所有可用的选项和其机会成本，而不仅仅考虑当前可获得的好处。 在购买汽车时，我们不仅应该考虑车的价格，还应该考虑其操作、保险和维护费用，以及 机会成本，即其它可选的投资机会，例如购买房产或存款。 其次是“市场效率原则”。市场效率在理论上意味着，市场机制可以引导资金最高效 率的配置。市场也可能会出现一些失灵，导致效率下降。其中一种失灵是市场垄断。当一 个公司控制了市场上某种商品或服务的全部或大部分供给时，它可以利用市场地位来抬高 价格，导致市场失效。政府可以通过监管和反垄断法来保护市场公平竞争，从而提高市场 效率。 另一项重要原则是“激励原则”。激励可以分为正面激励和负面激励。正面激励是指 奖励行为带来的激励，而负面激励则是指处罚不良行为或未采取行动的激励。当制定经济 政策时，应该考虑这些激励如何影响人们和企业的行为。减税和补贴可以激励企业增加生 产和创造就业机会，而增加消费税和关税则可能会减少消费和生产。 最后是“社会福利难以衡量原则”。就像市场效率一样，社会福利也无法精确衡量。 这是因为社会福利受到各种不同的因素和共同体的影响。政府在制定和实施政策时需要考 虑所有相关社会群体的福利，以及其权衡利益的能力。在制定环保方针时，政府需要权衡 环境保护和经济增长之间的利益，以实现符合全社会利益的最终决策。 了解曼昆十大经济学原理是理解现代经济学的基本步骤之一。越来越多的人了解这些 原则，并将其应用于个人和企业决策，以及社会政策制定。除了以上提到的几个原则之外，曼昆十大经济学原理还包括“权衡取舍原则”和“边际原则”。 “权衡取舍原则”强调人们在面临选择时要进行取舍。即使某种选择能够带来短期好处，人们也必须考虑长期影响，并且从可能的选择中选择最佳的。在日常生活中，这个原 则可以帮助人们更好地规划自己的时间、预算和目标。 “边际原则”则强调经济活动（如生产、消费和投资）的边际效应。当人们进行决策时，他们不仅考虑到全局的影响，还要考虑到影响的边际效应。如果人们在某个方向上取 得了好处，他们会继续朝着那个方向前进，否则会转向其他方向。在企业运营中，边际原 则可以帮助企业量化和计算利润和成本，从而指导生产和销售决策。

曼昆-经济学原理-复习资料

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曼昆经济学原理复习资料整理

1 Q4Why should policy makers think about incentives? Policymakers need to think about incentives so they can understand how people will respond to the policies they put in place. The text's example of seat belts shows that policy actions can have quite unintended consequences. If incentives matter a lot, they may lead to a very different type of policy; for example, some economists have suggested putting knives in steering columns so that people will drive much more carefully! While this suggestion is silly, it highlights the importance of incentives. Q6what does the invisible hand of the marketplace do? The "invisible hand" of the marketplace represents the idea that even though individuals and firms are all acting in their own self-interest, prices and the marketplace guide them to do what is good for society as a whole. 2 Q1How is economics like a science? Economics is like a science because economists use the scientific method. They devise theories, collect data, and then analyze these data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories about how the world works. Economists use theory and observation like other scientists, but they are limited in their ability to run controlled experiments. Instead, they must rely on natural experiments. Q5 Use a production possibilities frontier to describe the idea of “efficiency〞? The idea of efficiency is that an outcome is efficient if the economy is getting all it can from the scarce resources it has available. In terms of the production possibilities frontier, an efficient point is a point on the frontier, such as point A in Figure 4. A point inside the frontier, such as point B, is inefficient since more of one good could be produced without reducing the production of another good. Q7What is the difference between a positive and a normative statement? Give an example of that. Positive statements are descriptive and make a claim about how the world is, while normative statements are prescriptive and make a claim about how the world ought to be. Here is an example. Positive: A rapid growth rate of money is the cause of inflation. Normative: The government should keep the growth rate of money low. 3 Q1 Explain how absolute advantage and comparative advantage differ. Absolute advantage reflects a comparison of the productivity of one person, firm, or nation to that of another, while comparative advantage is based on the relative opportunity costs of the persons, firms, or nations. While a person, firm, or nation may have an absolute advantage in producing every good, they can't have a comparative advantage in every good. Q4Will a nation tend to export or import goods to Question2. A nation will export goods for which it has a comparative advantage because it has a smaller opportunity cost of producing those goods. As a result, citizens of all nations are able to consume quantities of goods that are outside their production possibilities frontiers. 4 Q5Propeye’s income declines, and as a result, he buys more spinach. Is spinach an inferior or a normal goods? What happens to Popeye’s demand curve for spinach? Since Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him. Since he buys more spinach, but the price of spinach is unchanged, his demand curve for spinach shifts out as a result of the decrease in his income. Q8 Dose a change in producers’technology lead to a movement along the supply curve? Does a change in price lead to a movement along the supply curve or a shift in the supply curve?

曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第8版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解

曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第8版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解 目录 第1篇导言 第1章经济学十大原理 1.1 复习笔记 1.2 课后习题详解 1.3 名校考研真题详解 第2章像经济学家一样思考 2.1 复习笔记 2.2 课后习题详解 2.3 名校考研真题详解 第3章相互依存性与贸易的好处 3.1 复习笔记 3.2 课后习题详解

3.3 名校考研真题详解 第2篇市场如何运行 第4章供给与需求的市场力量 4.1 复习笔记 4.2 课后习题详解 4.3 名校考研真题详解 第5章弹性及其应用 5.1 复习笔记 5.2 课后习题详解 5.3 名校考研真题详解 第6章供给、需求与政府政策 6.1 复习笔记 6.2 课后习题详解 6.3 名校考研真题详解 第3篇市场和福利

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曼昆中级宏观经济学知识点整理 6 经济增长II：技术、经验和政策

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二、趋同 世界上贫穷的国家或地区赶上世界富裕国家或地区的现象。 1、相同稳定状态的情形 相同的储蓄率、相同的人口增长率并能得到相同技术的各个经济会出现相同的稳定状态，在这种情况下，预期两个经济体趋同。它们都会达到同样的稳态收入水平→绝对趋同。（追赶效应） 2、不同稳定状态的情形 经济体有着不同的储蓄率或人口增长率不同。那么，稳态收入会不同，我们就不应当预期它们会趋同，此时，每一个经济体将达到它自己的稳定状态。 三、要素积累与生产效率正相关关系的解释 ①一个有效率的经济可能鼓励资本积累； ②资本积累可能引致较高的效率； ③要素积累与生产效率都受共同的第三个变量（如制度、通胀率）驱动。 第三节、促进经济增长的政策 一、对储蓄率的评价 利用黄金规则来决定美国经济的储蓄率和资本存量是太高，太低还是正合适。用资本的边际产量MPK-δ和总产出增长率n+g进行比较可得。 二、促进经济增长的政策 1、改变储蓄率 ①对于预算状况的调节；②对于税率、税基和税收优惠政策的调节。 2、配置投资 ①对所有类型的资本实行同样的税制，然后让市场配置资源； ②政府应该积极鼓励对特定类型资本或行业的资本进行投资（外部性衡量）。 3、鼓励技术进步 鼓励私人部门将资源用于技术创新。 ①专利制度给新产品发明者以暂时的垄断地位；②税收法规为进行研究和开发的企业提供了税收优惠；③政府机构直接资助大学里的基础研究 第四节、超越索洛模型：内生增长理论 一、基本模型 Y = A K，其中，A为资本边际产出，为常数，这个模型与索洛模型的关键差别: MPK是恒定的，而在索洛模型中MPK是递减的。 此时，有资本的运动方向：ΔK = s Y -δK

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1。对于一个整体经济而言，收入必定等于支出 2.国内生产总值(GDP） 在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品和劳务的市场价值。 GDP通常是一年或一个季度（3个月）；衡量的生产价值局限于一个国家的地理范围之内，不管是由本国的国民还是住在本国的外国人生产;只包括现期生产的物品，不包括过去生产的物品；生产并合法出售的所有东西;只包括最终物品的价值；包括有形的物品，也包括无形的劳务；使用市场价格. 3.GDP 的四个组成部分是消费（C )、投资( I )、政府购买(G ）和净出口（NX ）。 （1）消费是家庭除购买新住房之外用于物品与服务的支出 （2)投资是用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出 （3）政府购买包括地方、州和联邦政府用于物品与服务的支出 （4）净出口等于外国对国内生产的物品的购买（出口)减国内对外国物品的购买（进口） 国内生产总值等于消费、投资、政府支出和净出口之和 4。真实GDP和名义GDP 真实GDP：按不变价格评价的物品与服务的生产(是用不变的基年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值）不受价格变动的影响,反映产的产量的变动 名义GDP:按现期价格评价的物品与服务的生产（是用当年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值）GDP 平减指数 GDP 平减指数是用名义GDP与真实GDP的比率乘以100计算的物价水平衡量指标 即GDP平减指数= （名义GDP/真实GDP）*100 通货膨胀率=［（第2年的GDP平减指数—第一年的GDP平减指数）/第一年的GDP平减指数]*100 第24章 1．消费物价指数CPI 答：指普通消费者购买的物品与服务的总费用的衡量指标. 即：CPI =（当年一篮子物品与服务的价格/基年一篮子的价格）＊100 计算消费物价指数：固定篮子、找出价格、计算这一篮子东西的费用、选择基年并计算指数、计算通货膨胀率 通货膨胀率：从前一个时期以来物价指数变动的百分比 通货膨胀率=[（第二年CPI-第一年CPI）/第一年CPI ］＊100％ 生产物价指数：企业所购买的一篮子物品与服务的费用的衡量指标 衡量生活费用中的三个问题。(CPI高估了生活费用的增加） （1)替代倾向。CPI使用了一篮子固定不变的物品。 （2）新产品的引进。CPI基于固定不变的一篮子物品和服务,没反映出因引进新物品而引起的货币价值的增加。 （3）无法衡量质量的变动。 GDP平减指数与CPI的差别： （1）GDP平减指数反映国内生产的所有物品与服务的价格，CPI反映消费者购买的所有物品与服务的价格(2）CPI比较的是固定的一篮子物品与服务的价格和基年这一篮子物品与服务的价格，GDP平减指数比较的是现期生产的物品与服务的价格和基年同样物品与服务的价格 2。根据通货膨胀的影响矫正经济变量 今天美元的数量=T年美元的数量＊（今天的物价水平/T年的物价水平） 指数化：根据法律或合同按照通货膨胀的影响对货币数量的自动调整 真实利率和名义利率 名义利率指通常公布的、未根据通货膨胀的影响校正的利率（货币数量） 真实利率指根据通货膨胀校正的利率（货币购买力） 真实利率=名义利率-通货膨胀率 当名义利率高于通货膨胀率时，真实利率为正利率;正利率会刺激居民储蓄。当名义利率低于通货膨胀率时,真实利率为负利率；负利率对经济不利，它扭曲了借贷关系。

曼昆经济学原理宏观部分重点整理

23 一国收入的衡量 一、经济的收入和支出 〃GDP 衡量：经济中所有人的总收入和用于经济中物品与劳务产出的总支出。 〃对一个整体经济而言，收入必定等于支出。 〃GDP 衡量货币流量。 〃两种计算GDP 方法：加总家庭对于物品和劳务的总支出或加总企业支付工资、租金和利润的总收入。 一、国内生产总值的衡量 1、国内生产总值：在某一既定时期一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与劳务的市场价值。 2、几点说明 〃GDP 使用市场价格。 〃GDP 不包括非法生产与销售的东西和家庭内的生产和消费。 〃GDP 只包括最终物品的价值。 〃GDP 包括有形的物品和无形的劳务。 〃GDP 不包括过去（一年或一个季度之外）生产的东西的交易。 〃用两种算法算出的GDP 差额为统计误差。 3、其他收入衡量指标 〃国民生产总值GNP ：一国永久居民所赚到的总收入。= GDP + 本国公民在国外赚到的收 入- 外国人在本国赚到的收入 〃国民生产净值NNP : = GNP -折旧（经济中设备和建筑物存量的磨损或消耗） 〃国民收入：一国居民在物品与劳务生产中赚到的总收入。=NNP -间接的企业税+企 业补贴 〃个人收入：家庭和非公司制企业得到的收入。=国民收入 -留存收益（公司获得但未 支付给其所有者的收入）-公司所得税-对社会保障的支付+家庭从其持有的政府债券中得到的利息收入+ 家庭从政府转移支付项目中得到的收入 三、GDP 组成部分 〃GDP = 消费+ 投资+ 政府购买+ 净出口= C + I + G + NX = Y 〃消费：家庭除购买新住房之外用于物品与劳务的支出。 〃投资：用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出。 〃政府购买（政府消费支出和总投资）：地方、州和联邦政府用于物品与劳务的支出。 〃转移支付：改变家庭收入却没有反映经济的生产，不用于交换现期生产的物品与劳务，不计入政府购买。 〃净出口：外国人对国内生产的物品的支出（出口）-国内居民对外国物品的支出（进口）。

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曼昆的十大经济学原理

曼昆的十大经济学原理 曼昆（Gregory Mankiw）是一位著名的经济学家，他在其畅销书《原理经济学》中提出了十大经济学原理，这些原理不仅在学术界有着重要的地位，也对我们日常生活有着深远的影响。接下来，我们将逐一介绍这十大经济学原理，希望能够帮助大家更好地理解经济学的基本概念和原理。 第一大原理，人们面临权衡取舍。在生活中，资源是有限的，而需求却是无限的。因此，人们不得不在各种选择之间进行权衡取舍，以满足最迫切的需求。这一原理在经济学中有着重要的意义，也可以帮助我们更好地规划自己的生活和工作。 第二大原理，机会成本。机会成本指的是为了得到某种东西所放弃的东西的价值。当我们做出选择时，我们需要考虑到所放弃的其他选择所带来的机会成本。这一原理提醒我们，在做出决策时要全面考虑各种因素，而不仅仅是眼前的利益。 第三大原理，理性人考虑边际量。边际量指的是对一种行为或决策进行微小调 整所带来的效果。理性人会考虑边际量来做出决策，以使得自己的利益最大化。这一原理在经济学中有着广泛的应用，也可以帮助我们更好地理解人们的行为和决策。 第四大原理，人们对激励作出反应。激励是人们行为的重要驱动力，人们会对 激励作出反应，以使得自己的利益最大化。了解激励对人们行为的影响，可以帮助我们更好地设计经济政策和管理制度。 第五大原理，贸易可以使每个人受益。贸易可以使各方都受益，因为它能够让 各方更好地利用各自的优势，从而实现互利互惠。了解贸易的原理，可以帮助我们更好地理解国际贸易和全球化的影响。 第六大原理，市场通常是组织经济活动的最有效方式。市场机制可以有效地调 节资源的配置和价格的形成，从而使得资源得到最有效的利用。了解市场机制的原理，可以帮助我们更好地理解市场经济的运行规律。