胡壮麟语言学第1章笔记

[语言]（什么是语言）

●语言是人类用于交际的任意的声音符号系统

●语言是言语交流的一种方式（简洁地说）

●语言是人类最重要的交际工具、思维工具、认识成果的贮存所

●语言是实用性的

●语言是社会的、约定俗成的

●语言是把人和其他动物区别开来的一个重要标志

●语言有四个本质特征：任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性

*实用性的——因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为

*社会的、约定俗成的——因为语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非谚语的暗示、动机、社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行。

[语言的本质特征]

*（Russell）“不管一只狗可以多么流利地吠叫，它无法告诉你它的父母贫穷但又诚实。”

本质特征是决定我们人类语言性质的特征，包括任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性。

1 [任意性]

由Saussure最先提出

●指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系

如果人类第一次看到猪是把它叫成“狗”，那么现在我们所知道的“猪”便叫做“狗”。

不同的语言中有不同的词来表达相同的概念：酒店—hotel，狗—dog

同一语言中由于方言、历史、地理位置等原因也会出现这一特性：素质—质素，公鸡—鸡公，客人—人客

●是人类语言多样性的一个重要原因

●有不同的程度：

（1）语素的音和义之间的任意性

狗叫：wow wow—wang wang

拟声词的发音看上去代表了他们所描述的词，但实际上任意性和拟声是可以同时起作用的

（2）句法上的任意性

对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。

因为句子序列和真实发生的事情之间有着一定程度的对应关系

He came in and sat down.

He sat down and come in.

功能语言学家认为语言最严格的任意性在于对立的语音，通过它我们辨别各组词。

（3）约定性

语言学上意义和符号之间是约定俗成的关系，所以语言有约定性，即任意性的相反面

任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，约定性又使学习语言变得费力。

2 [二重性]

●“二重性指拥有两层结构这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。”

——Lyons 语言的底层单位是自身不传达意义的一套音位，它们为语言符号提供了形式的部分

底层单位能各自结合组成具有独特、确定意义等上层单位，分为语素、词、句等符号序列

●二重性的优势：使语言拥有强大的能产性

语言具有声音和意义两重结构，这使得数目有限的语音单位能组合成无穷无尽的语义单位成千上万的词来自一套语音，在英语中是48个

大量的词能产生无穷无尽的句子，这些句子又能形成无穷无尽的语篇

●必须注意语言的层级性

人类语言最显著的特征

“…有限手段无限使用?的物质表现”，使语言拥有了巨大的潜力

●动物的交流系统不具有人类语言的二重性特征

动物用特定的声音来交流，这些底层单位有相应的意义，但却无法分解为更小的元素

动物语言的交流能力因此受到很大限制

3 [创造性]

●创造性即语言的能产性，指人们能够创造和理解那些它们以前从未接触的词句

这使人类语言区别于其他动物那种只能传递有限信息的交流系统

一只粉红色的大象在酒店的床上跳肚皮舞。

●二重性使人们能够运用少数基本语言单位组合成无穷无尽的新词新句

●递归性使人类语言具有构成无穷句子的潜力

He is reading a book which was written by a woman writer who live in a small town in England

where peo ple all love to play a kind of game which…

4 [移位性]

●指人类语言可以让使用者表示在说话时（时间和处所）并不存在的物体、时间和观点

即人们可以用语言来谈论真实或虚设的东西，也可以谈论过去的、正在进行的或将要发生的事情

也可以用语言来谈论语言本身。

广州人说：2008年奥运会在北京举行。

人们可以谈论莎士比亚的戏剧创作背景，又可以谈论未来20年的城市规划。

●人类说话无需由外界或内部的刺激引发，不像动物那样处于“直接刺激控制”之下

狗无法告诉主人它前几天丢了一根骨头

●移位性赋予人们概括和抽象的能力，从而造福人类

词不仅仅用在即时的语境中指称实际物体，它们也可以借助语言的所指表达意义

[语言七大功能]

1 [信息功能]

大部分人认为这是语言最主要的角色

●指语言用来传达信息、记录信息的功能；

●多用陈述句实现该功能；

●其一大特征是此命题有“真假值”

今年将在北京举行奥运会。（T）

水在摄氏90度沸腾。（F）

●在功能语法框架中，信息功能也被称为概念功能：“语言为表达…内容?服务”（Halliday）

2 [人际功能]

语言最重要的社会功能

●通过它人们建立并维持他们在社会中的身份地位

该功能使讲话者参与到某一情景语境中，来表达他们的身份、地位、态度、动机和推断等

还表示与情景有关的角色关系，即交际角色关系

Eg. 提问者—回答者，讲话者—听话者

人们称呼他人和指示自己的方法显示了人际关系的不同等级（亲爱的先生、您顺从的奴仆）

●与语言的认同功能有关

Eg. 观众看比赛时的反应，游行时喊的标语口号

3 [施为功能]

●出自Austin的“言语行为理论”

●指人们说话是在“做事”或采取实际行为的现象，主要是为了改变人们的社会地位

Eg. 法官的判决，总统的宣战言论，为孩子祈福，首航仪式上为船的命名

●可以延伸到在特殊的或宗教的场合中的对于事件的支配

Eg. “岁岁平安”

4 [感情功能]

语言最有用的功能之一

●说话者通过该功能表达他们的感情和态度，并因此能改变听者的感情

●能被当成信息功能来表达说话者对某一事件的肯定或否定等自我感受

经常能够完全个人化而不需加入任何与他人的交流

Eg. 天啊！我的妈呀！哇~~~~

●还可以指一群人的相互反应，他们通过这个来巩固别人的语言表达，这是人们的“抱团意识”

5 [交感性谈话]

●该术语来自于Malinowski的理论，指语言的社会交互性

●指有助于说明、维持人际和谐关系的短小而看起来毫无意义的表达

如俚语、玩笑、行业话，对天气、健康等话题的展开的谈论……

●这些礼节往来性的话语往往表达一些显而易见的情况，它们表明交流应该在被需要的时候才开放

●不同的文化有着不同的交感性交际的主题

6 [娱乐性功能]

●语言有时会因为纯粹的乐趣而得到使用

Eg. 对歌，诗歌，孩子们玩游戏时所念的口令

7 [元语言功能]

●指语言可以用来讨论语言本身的功能

Eg. 我们可以用单词“笔”来指一支笔，也可以用“笔”来讨论“笔”这个符号

词典编纂中用于词条解释的语言；用于描写语言特征的符号

运用该功能，人们可以通过改变句子的线形顺序来改变理解句子重点的角度

●该功能形成了语言的无限的自我反身性，因此人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。

[语言学]

●对语言系统的科学的研究

研究语言作为交际系统而被建构和运用的各种规律

●是社会科学的主要分支之一，也是已经被人们认识的学术主题

是一门独立的学科，现已建立了一整套理论、方法和分支

有5个主要分支：语音学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学

●能产生有实际效用的研究，也具有理论重要性，影响着其他许多相关的社会科学；

并与其他与语言相关的学科结合产生了宏观语言学，如心理语言学、社会语言学、计算语言学等等

[宏观语言学]

语言学并不是与语言相关的唯一科学，当其与其他学科结合时就形成了宏观语言学

1 [心理语言学]

●考察语言和意识的相互关系，有三个主要分支：语言的理解、产生、习得

●研究心理语言学对语法形式的限制

●研究儿童语言的发展，如语言习得理论、语言和认知的关系等

2 [社会语言学]

●在社会环境中研究语言，包括语言的社会功能和语言使用者的社会特征

●研究语言的多样性特征、功能特征和说话者特征，及这三者在言语社团中持续的交互作用和变化

●试图揭示出那些能解释和限制言语社团中语言行为和作用于语言行为的社会规则和规范

●努力确定语言多样性对于说话者的符号性价值

3 [人类语言学]

●关注早先无文字语言的历史和结构，语言的出现和语言在千万年里的分化

●人类语言学家通过对当前现有的语言的比较开展工作，然后推出语言在过去也许发生过的种种变化，

及这些变化对现存语言之间的相似和相异可能做出的解释

●他们关注的问题主要有：

两种或两种以上的当代语言是否源自相同的原始语？

如果它们是有联系的，多久以前它们变得不同起来？

4 [计算语言学]

●以计算机处理和产生人类语言（即自然语言）这一应用为中心

●语言学提供有关语言结构和使用的理论和描写

计算机科学为设计和执行计算机系统提供理论和技术

●一些流行的应用领域：机器翻译、信息检索、以自然语言界面出现的专门系统等

5 [应用语言学]

●主要指将语言学理论应用到外语教学中

它对语言学理论的研究结果进行了解释，弥缝了语言学理论和外语教学之间的隔阂

●其媒介作用在外语教学中的表现：

1 使语言学理论拓展和延伸到语言教学这个领域，

为教师提供了一套关于语言和语言系统本质的形式化的知识，

加深了教师对语言学习本质的认识，

使得教师能够在教学目标和内容上作出更为合理的决策。

[共时] & [历时]

●Saussure首先指出了这两者之间的对立，用其分别说明两种不同的语言研究

[共时语言学] 以一个特定的时间为观察角度，即研究语言在某时期内相对稳定的系统

Eg. 《现代英语语法》、《“元朝秘史”的语言》

语言是不断变化的，语言描写是一项长期的工作，所以共时是一种虚构，但对语言学至关重要

[历时语言学] 在语言的历史过程中研究语言

Eg.19世纪达尔文主义者们所感兴趣的历史语言学

[描写式] & [规定式]

●区别：

[描写式]描述和分析实际情况或现象，即事情是怎样的：人们说……人们不说……

[规定式]通过制定种种限制性规约来说明事情应该是这样的：要说……不要说……

[描写式语言学]语言学家尽力去发现和记录言语社团的成员实际遵守的规则，

而不再加入其他的规则、标准来加以修正

[规定式语言学]语法学家总是努力为正确运用语言规定各种规则，并以此解决使用上的争端

传统语法多为规定式，在特征上非常规范

●今天人们已经认识到语言的使用是超出权威所规定的“标准”的，

但行政和教育等方面仍建立和规定语言的使用规范

●语言学的本质是科学这一点决定了语言学的当务之急是描写而非规定

[语言] & [言语]

●Saussure将说话者的语言能力和语言的实际现象和语料区分为语言和言语

●语言：

是一代人传到另一代人的语言系统，包括语法、句法、词汇等；

是社会约定俗成的方面，是一个言语社团的成员所共知的体系

是抽象的、社会的、有限的、稳定的

Eg. 汉语、日语、英语……

●言语：

是语言运用的过程和结果

是具体的、个人的、无限的、变化的现象

●区分语言和言语，有助于明确语言研究的对象和范围

Saussure认为，语言学家研究的对象应该是每个社团的语言

[语言能力] & [语言运用]

●Cho msky在《句法理论的若干问题》中讨论过这个基础性区别

[语言能力] 一个语言使用者关于语言系统基本规则的理解

这使语言使用者能够创造和理解无穷无尽的句子和辨别不太规范或不合语法的表述

[语言应用] 在具体场景中语言的真实应用

●作为语言的使用者，我们对语言规则有着本能的把握；

虽然很难清楚地陈述出来，但我们的语言行为证明了这种能力

●然而，正常的语言使用者的语言能力和语言应用之间存在着差异

语言能力是稳定的，但语言应用却常常受到心理因素和社会因素的影响

Eg. 一个人讲话时可能会犯语法错误，但这并不意味着他不知道他犯了错误或不懂得该语法规则

Chomsky认为，语言学家的任务是从语言运用的素材中确定被语言使用者掌握了的语言规则的基础系统●Chomsky的这个区分与Saussure的“语言—言语”的区分有相似之处

但他并不接受将语言看成是元素的纯粹性系统性的组合这种观点

他更倾向于从心理学的角度来理解语言能力，即作为一个能产性系统所具有的根本的能力

●Chomsky的转换生成语法把理想化的说话人的语言能力作为研究对象

但并非所有语言学家都同意这个观点

●因此引出一些相关的概念，如交际能力

——它拓展了受Chomsky所谓语法知识限制的语言能力这个一概念，使之具有语言运用的能力

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