欧洲史复习资料
Division I : Greek Culture
A. The Historical Context
a. The earliest civilization to appear around Greece was the Minoan civilization in Crete, which lasted approximately from 2700 (Early Minoan) BC to 1450 BC, and on the Early Helladic period on the Greek mainland from ca. 2800 BC to 2100 BC. Mycenaean Greece, also known as Bronze Age Greece, is the Late Helladic Bronze Age civilization of Ancient Greece. It lasted from around 1600 BC to 1100 BC.
b. 1200 B.C. the war of Troy a war was fought between Greece and Troy, ending in the destruction of Troy.
c. 5th century B.C. Greek culture reached a high point of development. --- successful repulse of the Persian invasion --- the establishment of democracy --- the flourishing of science, philosophy, literature, art and historical writing in Athens The century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta
d. In the second half of the 4th century B.C. all Greece was brought under the rule of Alexander, king of Macedon Greek culture was spread. In 146 B.C. the Romans conquered Greece
B. Social and Political Structure
a. Politics: Athens was a democracy Democracy means “exercise of power by the whole people.”But “the whole people”the Greeks meant only the adult male citizens.
b. Economy: the economy of Athens rested on an immense amount of slave labour. Farm, workshop, mine There was harsh exploitation in Greek society
c. Sports: Greeks loved sports A big festival on Olympus Mount once every 4 year ---- Olympic Games Modern Olympic Games revived in 1896 顾拜旦(法)
C. Homer( probably lived around 700 B.C.)
Two epics: Iliad Odysseus They are about great men and wars of a remoter age, probably in the period 1200—1100 B.C
D. Lyric Poetry
Sappho (about 612—580 B.C.) woman poet
She is noted for her love poems of passionate intensity, some of which are addressed to women. She was considered the most important lyric poet of ancient Greece. Many Greek and Latin writers know nearly all her poems by heart. But in the 10th century the Christian church burned her works. Only fragments remain.
Two samples
(1) I could not hope (2) In gold sandals
To touch the sky Dawn like a thief
With my two arms Fell upon me
Pindar (about 518—438 B.C.) He is best known for his odes celebrating the victories at the athletic games, such as the 14 Olympian odes. Pindar also had imitators, such as the 17th-century English poet John Dryden.
E. Drama
Origin: perform plays at religious festivals.
Develop: in the 5th century B.C. a powerful drama developed
States: open-air theatres, audience sat on stone benches and looked down at the stage from three sides, actors wore masks
a.Tragedy
Aeschylus (525 —456 B.C.)
Works: Prometheus Bound, Persians, and Agamemnon In these plays there are only two actors and a chorus. Yet they manage to stir and move the audience deeply by showing heroes and heroines in complicated human situations, out of which there is no escape but death. The play are written in verse. Aeschylus is noted for his vivid character portrayal and majestic poetry
Sophocles (496 --- 406 B.C.)
Works: Oedipus the King, Electra《厄勒克特拉》, and Antigone《安提戈涅》. Contribution: he added a third actor and decreased the size of the chorus. Sophodcles has had a strong impact on European literature. Some of his plots were taken over and adoped by later writers. The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud‘s term “the Oedipus complex”was also derived from Sophocles’s play.
Euripides (484 --- 406 B.C.)
Works: Andromache《安德洛玛刻》, Medea《美狄亚》, and Trojan Women
b. Comedy
Aristophanes (about 450 --- 380 B.C.)
Works: Frogs, Clouds, Wasps and Birds These plays are loose in plot and satirical in tone.
F. History
Herodotus (484 --- 430 B.C.)
Father of History, he wrote about the wars between Greeks and Persians. His history, full of anecdotes and digressions and lively dialogue, is wonderfully readable. He kept alive many traditional stories, which were not always accurate. His object in writing was ―that the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and Persians should not lack renown.
Thucydides (about 460 --- 404 B.C.)
Younger than Herodotus, he is more accurate as an historian. He traced events to their causes and brought out their effects. He was never dull, but wrote with imagination and power. He was called “the greatest historian that ever lived”by Macaulay (an eminent historian)
G. Philosophy and Science
The ancient Greeks were curious about many things, including what made the universe. They had the spirit of free enquiry and were quite ready to drop established ideas, to speculate, to use their imagination and to form their own conclusions. They were also not afraid to speak their minds.
Pythagoras (about 580 --- 500 B.C.) had the idea that all things were number.
Heracleitue (about 540 --- 480 B.C.) believed fire to be the primary element of the universe He also said: You cannot step twice into the same river. The sun is new everyday
Democritus (about 460 --- 370 B.C.) speculated about the atomic structure of matter. He was one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory.
a. Socrates( about 470 --- 399 B.C.)
The dialectical method --- method of argument, by questions and answers. Greek philosopher who initiated a question-and-answer method of teaching as a means of achieving self-knowledge. His theories of virtue and justice have survived through the writings of Plato, his most important pupil. Socrates was tried for corrupting the minds of Athenian youth and subsequently put to death (399).
b. Plato( about 428 ---348 B.C.)
Men have knowledge because of the existence of certain general “idea”, like beauty, truth, goodness. Only these “ideas”are completely real, while the physical world is only relatively real.
For this reason, Plato‘s philosophy is called Idealism.(唯心主义) Greek philosopher. A follower of Socrates, he founded the Academy (386), where he taught and wrote for much of the rest of his life. Plato presented his ideas in the form of dramatic dialogues, as in The Republic.
c. Aristotle (384 --- 322 B.C.)
Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, he profoundly influenced Western thought. In his philosophical system theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism三段论, is the essential method of rational inquiry.
d. Contending Schools of Thought
In the 4th century B.C., four schools of philosophers often argued with each other. They were: The Cynics 犬儒主义got their name because Diogenes.戴奥真尼斯(希腊的哲学家,公主张“简单寡求”的生活，决心像狗一样生活下去。元前412-323), one of their leaders, decided to live like a dog and the word “cynic”means “dog” in Greek. He rejected all conventions --- whether of religion, of manners, dress, housing, food, or of decency. He advocated self-sufficiency and extreme simplicity in life. In fact, he lived by begging. He proclaimed his brotherhood, not only with the whole human race, but also with animals. On the other hand, he had no patience with the rich and powerful. The story is told of how Alexander the Great visited him and asked if he wanted any favour. “Only to stand out of my light”, he replied.
The Sceptics 怀疑学派（对一切知识持怀疑态度）followed Pyrrho (皮洛about 360—272B.C.古希腊极端怀疑主义哲学家), who held that not all knowledge was attainable. Hence he and his followers doubted the truth of what others accepted as true.
The Epicureans伊壁鸠鲁学派（主张将快乐进行到底）were disciples of Epicurus (伊壁鸠鲁341-270B.C.古希腊杰出唯物主义和无神论者), who believed pleasure to be the highest good in life, but by pleasure he meant, not sensual enjoyment, but freedom from pain and emotional upheaval. This he thought could be attained by the practice of virtue. His teaching was misunderstood by later people and the word “Epicurean”has come to mean indulgence in luxurious living. Epicurus was a materialist. Following Democritus, he believed that the world consisted of atoms.
The Stoics斯多葛派（倡导“克己制欲、顺从天命”）were opposed to the Epicureans. To them , the most important thing in life was not “pleasure”, but “duty”. This developed into the theory that one should endure hardship and misfortune with courage. The chief Stoic was Zeno(齐诺about 335 –263 B.C. 希腊哲学家, 斯多葛派的创始人)
e. Science
Euclid 欧几里得(约公元前3世纪的古希腊数学家) is even now well-known for his Element 《几何原本》, a textbook of geometry, perhaps the most successful textbook ever written, because it was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.
Archimedes 阿基米德(287—212 B.C.) did important work not only in geometry, but also in arithmetic, machanics, and hydrostatics. “Give me a place to stand, and I will move the world.”Greek science did not neglect application. Mathematics, the purest of sciences, was applied in at least five fields: acoustics, optics, geography, statics and astronomy. Greek scientists collected a wealth of material and enquired into the proper method of doing scientific work. As a result, they were able to deduce theories and built up systems, which had a tremendous influence on later
scientists.
H. Architecture
a. Art
Greek art is a visual proof of Greek civilization.
b. Architecture
Greek architecture can be grouped into 3 styles
1) The Doric Style ( masculine style ) is sturdy (strong and firm), powerful, severe looking, showing a good sense of proportions and numbers.
2) The Ionic Style ( feminine style ) is graceful and elegant (slightly ornamental style ) ( While the Doric Style is monotonous and unadorned, the Ionic style often shows a wealth of ornament) 3) The Corinthian Style is seldom used in the Greek world, but often seen on Roman temples. Its capital is very elaborate and decorated with acanthus leaves.
doric ionic corinthian
The famous temples:
Parthenon (447 -- 432 B.C.)--- the most perfect of all the Greek temples, 240 feet long and 110 feet wide, a rectangular structure with evenly spaced lines of columns around Acrpolis (437 –432 B.C.)
Erechtheum - temple from the middle classical period of Greek art and architecture, built on the Acropolis of Athens between 421 and 405BC
c. Sculpture
The earliest Greek sculptures were those of Gods. Stiff, lifeless wood carvings. Towards the 7th century B.C., the size of the statues became bigger and life-size. The figures stand very stiff with arms close to their sides, hands clenched or flat against the legs. Narrow waists but broad shoulders and their hair was done in neat and rhythmical rows. Towards the 5th century B.C., change from stiff and mechanical to a period in which the beauty of the internal structure of human bodies and mythological figures are well-observed and brought out..
Discus Thrower A good sense of harmony and the balance of opposites Venus de Milo It has been looked upon as a symbol of beauty, grace and health, a personification of vitality and dignity. Laocoon group about 125 B.C. It is known for its successful depiction of the expression of Laocoon‘s face –fear, sympathy and terror
d. Pottery
The flourishing of the Greek pottery was a result of domestic needs and needs for foreign trade. There were Black-figure paintings (700 –600 B.C.) and Red-figure paintings ( --50 B.C.) The Black-figure paintings are paintings on pottery that have red background and black figure. The Red-figure paintings are paintings on pottery that have black background and pink figure.
I. Impact
There has been in Europe and elsewhere an enduring excitement about classical Greek culture. Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries. Three qualities stand out:
a. Spirit of Innovation
“They invented mathematics and science and philosophy; they first wrote history as opposed to mere annals; they speculated freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life, without being bound in the fetters of any inherited orthodoxy.”(Bertand Russell: History of Western Philosophy)
b. Supreme Achievement
The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour; philosophy, science, epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, lyric poetry, historical writing, architecture, sculpture, etc. c. Lasting Effect
Philosophy Literature: Byron‘s Isles of Greece, Shelley‘s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats‘s Ode on a Grecian Urn.
Division I-I: Roman Culture
Roman History --- The Ancient
According to legend, Rome was founded on April 21, 753 BC by twin brothers descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas.
Romulus and Remus are the grandsons of the Latin King, Numitor of Alba Longa. The King was ejected from his throne by his cruel brother Amulius while Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, gave birth.
Rhea Silvia was a Vestal Virgin who was raped by Mars, making the twins half-divine. The new king feared that Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so they were to be drowned.
A she-wolf (or a shepherd's wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor.
The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over which one of them was to reign as the King of Rome, though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to give their name to the city. Romulus became the source of the city's name. As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.
Roman History --- The Republic
The Roman Republic was established around 509 BC, according to later writers such as Livy, when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed, and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers.
The most important magistrates were the two consuls (保民官), who together exercised executive authority in the form of emporium, or military command. The consuls had to work with the senate(元老院), which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians (贵族), but grew in size and power over time. Other magistracies in the Republic include praetors (司法官), aediles (市政官), and quaestors (度支官). The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians, but were later opened to common people, or plebeians (平民).
Republican voting assemblies included the comitia centuriata (centuriate assembly) (平民会议), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the comitia tributa (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.
Roman History --- Important Dates
753 B.C. The City Rome was built.
510 B.C. The Romans expelled the Etruscan king from Rome and founded the Republic.
264B.C. Roman conquered all Italy.
146 B.C. Roman conquered Greece.
27 B.C. Octavius became the emperor of Augustus. Later, Roman Empire reached its greatest. 260 Roman was defeated by Persians.
284 Roman Empire was divided into the East and the West.
3rd C The Empire began to decline.
330 A.D. The emperor Constantine moved the Capital Rome to Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople (modern Istanbul).
392 A.D. Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion.
476 A.D. The end of West Roman Empire.
1453 The end of East Roman Empire.
Romans and Greeks
The common things:
In politics ---- Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of the citizen assembly, hostile to monarchy and to servility.
In religions--- Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities to be readily identified---Greek Zeus with Roman Jupiter, Greek Aphrodite with Roman Venus, and so on---and their myths to be fused.
In languages ---Their languages worked in similar ways, and were ultimately related, both being members of the Indo-European language family.
The difference:
The Romans built up a vast empire; the Greeks didn‘t. Except for the brief moment of Alexander‘s conquests, which soon disintegrated.
Roman Law
The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may be traced to the law of the twelve tables (from 449 BC) to the codification of Emperor Justinian I (around 530 AD). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the Byzantine Empire, and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century.
The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of Ius Civile, Ius Gentium, and Ius Naturale. The Ius Civile ("Citizen law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens. The Praetores Urbani(sg. Praetor Urbanus) were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens.
The Ius Gentium("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens. he Praetores Peregrini (sg. Praetor Peregrinus) were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. Ius Naturale encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all being.
Latin Literature
A. Prose
Marcus Tullius Cicero (106—43B.C.)
He played an important role in the Roman senate and noted for his oratory and fine writing style. His legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction.
Ciceronian—eloquent, oratorical manner of writing
Julius Caesar (102/100?–44B.C.) a general, dictator, assassinated.
He recorded what he did and saw in the various military campaigns. These writings, collected in his Commentaries, are models of succinct Latin. He use language with economy and ferocity
“I came, I saw, I conquered. ”
B. Poetry
Lucretius (93—50 B.C.)
He wrote the philosophical poem On the Nature of Things
Virgil (70—19 B.C.)
The greatest of Latin poets, wrote the great epic, the Aenied
Architecture
The Romans were particularly renowned for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "Classical architecture". During the Roman Republic, it remained stylistically almost identical to Greek architecture. Although there were many differences from Greek architecture, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, and from the dome, which was derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic.
The Romans were great engineers. They covered their world from one end to the other with roads, bridges, aqueducts, theatres and arenas
The Pantheon: The greatest and the best preserved Roman temple, which was built in 27 B.C. and reconstructed in the 2nd century A.D
Pont du Gard: It is an exceptionally well-preserved aqueduct that spans a wide valley in south France.
The Colosseum: It is an enormous amphitheatre built in the entre of Rome in imperial times. A masterpiece of engineering, it held more than 5000 spectators. Its interior is two-third of a mile round.
Language
The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language the grammar of which relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. Its alphabet was based on the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation.
While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the Byzantine
Empire, Latin was never able to replace Greek, and after the death of Justinian, Greek became the official language of the Byzantine government. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages.
Alphabets
Latin Alphabets
A B C D E F Z H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X
Sculpture
she-wolf
A statue which illustrates the legend of the creation of RomeToday at the site of the city‘s founding, there stands a statue of the she-wolf.
Division II:The Bible and Christianity
I. Background Information
Some 3,800 years ago the ancestors of the Jews ―the Hebrews―wandered through the deserts of the Middle East. They were travelling merchants, moving from one trading post to the next. And that was how they came to be called "Hebrews", which means "wanderers". About 1,300 B. C. , the Hebrews came to settle in Palestine, known as Canaan at that time, and formed small kingdoms. Their history was handed down orally from one generation to another in the form of folktales and stories, which were recorded later in the Old Testament. which still later became the first part of the Christian Bible. Though a minor tribe in ancient Middle East with a small population, the Hebrews made one of the greatest contributions to the world civilization.
II. The old Testament
Bible--- a collection of religious writings comprising two parts: the Old Testament --- about God and the laws of God (consists of 39 books) and the New Testament --- the doctrine of Jesus Christ (consists of 27 books). Testament means agreement, the agreement between God and Man.
1. The Pentateuch --- the oldest and most important first five books of the Old Testament. It‘s about the myths of God‘s creation of world and the myths of human‘s original ancestors. Genesis (创世纪): a religious account of the origin of the Hebrew people, including the origin of the world and of man, the career of Issac and the life of Jacob and his son Joseph.
Exodus(出埃及记): a religious history of the Hebrews during their flight from Egypt, the period when they began to receive God‘s Law.
Leviticus(利末记): a collection of primitive laws.
Numbers(民数记): a continuation of the account of the flight from Egypt with two censuses about the Exodus .
Deuteronomy(申命记): the final words of Moses to his people, restating his orders and fifty year‘s experiences as a leader.
a. The Fall of Man
b. Noah‘s Ark
c. Commandments 摩西十戒
2. The Historical Books --- the history of ancient Jews from Hebrews‘settlement in Balestain (1200 B.C.) to 100‘s A.D.
This part of the Old Testament includes these books:
Book of Joshua约书亚记
Book of Judges士师记
Books of Samuel撒母耳记
Books of Kings列王记
Books of the Chronicles历代志
Books of Ezra以斯拉记
Book of Nehemiah尼希米记
This period of Hebrew history covers the settlement in the Highlands by the Hebrews, the development of system of landed nobles, development of monarchy, age of great prosperity under Saul, David and Solomon, and establishment of the two Kingdoms.
Moses --- Joshua --- Saul --- David (Capital –Jerusalem)
The Poetical Books--- poems and other forms of religious literature works
Book of Job: a poetic drama
Book of Psalms, a collection of 150 poetic pieces, the chief hymnal of the Jews. Proverb: a collection of moral maxims or sayings of practical nature.
Ecclesiastes: a collection of sayings about the purpose of life.
Songs of Solomon: a collection of love poems, depicting everyday life in the countryside.
3. The Prophets --- 关于先知的预言和宗教、政治评论.
A. Amos
B. Jeremiah
C. The Book of Daniel
III. Rise of Christianity
Two beliefs which separate Christianity from all other religious:
1. Jesus Christ is the son of God, and God sent him to earth to live as humans live, suffer as humans suffer, and die to redeem mankind.
2. God gave his only begotten son, so that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but have ever lasting life.
At the heart of Christianity is the life of Jesus: How he lived and died to redeem the whole human race.
1. The life of Jesus
Nazareth / Augustus / Jew / local synagogue / 30 / baptism / John Baptist / Galilee / throughout Palestine / preach / 3 years / to Jerusalem for the Passover / betrayed by Juda / crucified as a revolutionary preacher and dangerous reformer.
2. The Spread of Christianity
Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313. It granted religious freedom to all, and made Christianity legal. In 392 A.D., Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the
official religion of the empire and outlawed all other religious. Christianity changed from an object of oppression to a weapon in the hands of the ruling class. After the fifth century Nestorianism reached China.
IV. The New Testament
By 300 A.D. each local church --- a parish --- priest, several parishes --- diocese --- bishop, the most important bishops were called archbishop.
With the establishment of the church organization, the Christians began to consider what writings to include in the Christian Scriptures, or the New Testament.
As Jesus had left no written records, his disciples in the first century wrote down in Greek about his life and teaching.
Towards the end of the 4 century, four accounts were accepted as part of the New Testament: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.
They were believed to have been written by Matthew, Mark, Luke and John --- 4 of Jesus early followers. They tell of the birth, teaching, death and resurrection of Jesus.
Other parts of the New Testament :
the Acts of the Apostles: a history of the early Christian Movement.
the Epistles: or letters to the church groups around the Mediterranean. This os the last part of the N.T.
the book of Revelation: a visionary account of the final triumph of God‘s purpose
Some stories in the N.T.:
# The Birth of Jesus
# Jesus Is Tempted by the Devil
# The Sermon on the Mount
# The Last Supper
# The Crucifixion (the death of Christ on the cross)
V. Translation of the Bible
The Bible is a collection of religious writings. It is much more than a religious book, reflecting most extensively western ideas and culture.
It is really an encyclopedia. It is the essential of western civilization, having shaped the western civilization more decisively than anything else ever written.
All in one, it is history, it is literature, it is record of great minds.
The influence on the human race:
1. The oldest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament is known as the Septuagint. It is still in use in the Greek Church today. 72 translators translated it in 72 days. It is extremely invaluable because the texts from which it is translated has been lost. And no copy of the original translation can be found.
2. The most ancient extant Latin version of the whole Bible is the Vulgate edition in common people‘s language. (This version made the Bible very popular.)
3. The first English version of whole Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate in 1382 and was copied out by hand by the early group of reformers led by John Wycliff.
4. The most important and influential of English Bible is the “Authorized”or King James’version, first published in 1611.
Division III: The Middle Ages
II. General Introduction
In European history, the thousand-year period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century is called the Middle Ages. It is so called because it came between ancient times and modern times.
Wars, invasions, destruction, confusion, hunger, disease, During the Medieval times there was no central government to keep the order. The only organization that seemed to unite Europe was the Christian church.
The Age of Faith? Or The Age of Dark?
Christianity took the lead in politics, law, art, and learning for hundreds of years. It shaped people‘s lives. That is why the Middle Ages is also called the “Age of Faith”.
And because Christianity controls everything, we also call the Middle Ages “Dark Ages”. Actually it refers usually to the period of 450-750 A.D., also known as the Early Middle Ages.
In fact, the term Dark Ages may be more a judgment on the lack of sources for evaluating the period than on the significance of events that transpired.
Transition to the Modern World
This is a period in which classical, Hebrew and Gothic heritages merged. And it is this fusion and blending of different ideas and practices that paved the way for the development of what is the present-day European culture.
III. Feudalism
Feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding, a system of holding land in exchange for military service. The word “feudalism”was derived from the Latin “feudum”, a grant of land.
Most of peasants became serfs (attacks from invaders and robbers----sought protection from powerful landowners--- gave their land and freedom). Very few peasants were freemen --- workers (made ploughs, shod the horses, and made harnesses).
In 732 Charles Martel , a Frankish ruler gave his soldiers estates known as fiefs as reward for their service.
Soldiers (fiefs)----lesser vassals---lords (vassals)---king.
No Central Government
Thus a complicated system of government developed. After 800, the kings in Europe were usually very weak. Without a strong central government the kingdoms of Western Europe were divided into thousands of feudal manors or farming communities, each as big as an ancient polis. Some nobles grew more powerful than the king, and became independent rulers. They had right to collect taxes and to make their own laws. Many of them coined their own money and raised their own armies. Therefore feudalism was also a system of government --- a form of local and decentralized government.
IV. The Manor and Castles
The central medieval life under feudalism was the manor. Manors were founded on the fiefs of the lords. Some lords owned only one manor; others owned many. They lived in a manor house. Manors house were made of stone and designed as fortresses. They came to be called castles. Medieval Europe was dotted with castles. Nowadays if you have a chance to travel in Europe, you still find so many castles, especially in Germany.
V. Knighthood and Code of Chivalry
Almost all nobles were knights in the medieval days. But no one was born a knight. Knighthood had to be earned. The training was both long and hard .
Training of a Knight
At the age of 7 page -- learn to say prayers
-- learn good manners
-- ran errands for the ladies
At about 14 squire -- assistant to a knight (his master)
-- learn the duties of a knight,
-- practice using a sword, lance and shield,
-- go into battle with his master
If proved to be knight -- pledge to protect the weak
a good fighter -- to fight for the church
-- to be loyal to his lord
-- to respect women of noble birth
Knights’ basic armor components:
Helment, gorget, pauldron, breastplate, upper vambrace, cowter, lower vambrace, gauntlet, tasset, cuisse, poleyn, greaves
Women in the Middle Ages
Woman under the Safeguard of knighthood, allegorical Scene
VI. The Crusades
Reason :In 1071 Palestine fell to the armies of the Turkish Moslems.
Process:Holy wars of crusade went on about 200 years. There were altogether eight chief Crusades:
First Crusade 1096—1099
Second Crusade 1147--- 1149
Third Crusade 1189--- 1192
Fourth Crusade 1202--- 1204
Fifth Crusade 1218--- 1221
Sixth Crusade 1228--- 1229
Seventh Crusade 1248--- 1254
Eighth Crusade 1270
Significance:
By 1291 the Moslems had taken over the last Christian stronghold.
They won the crusades. Although the Crusades failed, they had an
important effect on the future of both the East and the West.
1. They brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe.
2. Crusades helped to break down feudalism, which, in turn led to the rise of the monarchies.
3. Through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems, the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas.
4. The Crusades also resulted in learning and invention. Such knowledge as Arabic numbers, algebra and Arab medicine were introduced to the West.
VII. Art and Architecture
After Jesus Christ died, his followers such as Peter, Paul and other priests continued to preach around the Mediterranean Sea. You know the Roman Emperors were cruel and ruthless, people lived in a poor and miserable life, so Christianity was steadily spreading and first accepted by the poor class. But the Romans themselves grew tired of was and feared the collapse of the empire. And they admired the courage the Christian missionaries professed and the love, kindness and security that Christianity offered.
In 476 A.D. a Germanic general killed the last Roman Emperor, the West Roman Empire fell, but the East Empire continued. In 313, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which granted religion freedom to all, and made Christianity legal. In 330, Constantine built his Empire Byzantine as continued Empire of East Rome.
Byzantine Style
During this period from Ancient Greek and Rome to Byzantine, the changes reflected in the inner way of Religion. You know Christianity stressed the inner beliefs, so the new Church weights the building interior. This style looks like in two ways.
Basilica--- long square hall
--- exterior simple
--- interior glory, with golden decoration
Vault--- Pendentive Dome, such as Church of St. Sophia
Romanesque
The buildings, sculpture, painting, and decorative arts created in Europe, during the 11th and 12th centuries exhibit a style that, in spite of national and regional variations, has numerous common characteristics. This has led the scholars to coin the term “Romanesque”, which means “in the Roman manner”. Romanesque art is predominantly religious.
Style--- massiveness
--- solidity
--- monumentality with an overall blocky appearance
--- Sculpture and painting, primarily in churches
--- plan cross, imbued with symbolism and allegory.
--- rib roof
Gothic
The Gothic style started in France and quickly spread through all parts of western Europe. It flourished and lasted from the mid-12th to the end of 15th century and , in some areas, into the 16th. More churches were built in this manner than in any other style in history. Gothic cathedrals soared high, their windows, arches and towers reaching heavenward, flinging their passion against the sky.
Style--- lancet
--- rib
--- flying buttress
--- rose window
--- stained glass windows
--- turret / pinnacle
Division IV:Renaissance and Reformation
I. General Introduction
1. Renaissance: Generally speaking，Renaissance refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th century. The word “Renaissance”means revival (复兴)，specifically in this period of history，revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture. Renaissance，in essence (从实质上讲)，was a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of conservatism (保守主义思想) in feudalist Europe and introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie (资产阶级)，to lift the restrictions in all areas placed by the Roman church authorities.(权利威信) p129
2. Renaissance started in Florence and Venice with the flowering of paintings, sculpture and architecture. p129
II. Renaissance in Italy
Historical Background
?geographical position
?cities began to rise
?city-states established
?Florence
II. The Rise of Humanism
●Intellectuals became closely tied up (息息相关) with the rising bourgeoisie.(人文主义兴
起的重要原因Humanistic ideas to develop)
●At the heart of the Renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of
man.(以人为本-------人文主义的核心)
III. New Literature
●Boccaccio was an Italian author and poet, a friend and correspondent of Petrarch, an
important Renaissance humanist .
●Petrarch (彼得拉克) was the representative poet , father of modern poetry.
IV. Renaissance Art
●Renaissance Art:
A radical (根本的) break with medieval (中古的) methods of representing the visible world occurred in Italy during the second half of the 13th century. It was not until the second decade of the 15th century that there was a decided break with the medieval pictorial tradition (田园式风格).
Early Renaissance Artists
●Giotto: Flight into Egypt , Betrayal of Judas forerunner of renaissance.
●Brunelleschi showed a systematic use of perspective.
●Donatello, one of the first artists engaged in anatomy “David”.
●Giorgione made happy use of colour schemes to unify his pictures “Sleeping Venus” High Renaissance Artists
●Da Vinci : Last Supper, Mona Lisa
Last Supper adapted from the New Testament of the Bible.
The idea of the greatness of man is reflected in Da Vincci’s Mona Lisa --- model wife of a banker --- the ambiguity of the smile.
●Michelangelo: David, Sistine Chapel (from the First book of the Bible，the Genesis ),
Dying Slave(垂死的奴隶), Moses(摩西)
●Raphael was best known for his Madonna (Virgin Mary) (圣母玛利亚). He painted his
Madonnas in different postures, against different backgrounds. One of the famous paintings besides the Madonnas is School of Athens (雅典学派)。Plato and Aristotle engaged (使用) in argument.
●Titian oil color the most prolific of the great Venetian painters of Western World. The
Venus of Urbino (乌尔比诺的维纳斯), Man with the Glove (带手套的人).
V. The Characteristics of Renaissance Art:
a) Art broke away from the domination of the church.
b) Themes of paintings changed to an appreciation of all aspects of nature and man.
c) The artists studied the ruins (毁灭) of Roman and Greek temples and put many of the principles (原则信念) of ancient civilization into their works. They began to be supported by individual collectors (私人收藏品).
d) Artists introduced in their works scientific theories of anatomy (解剖) and perspective (透视)。VI. Decline of the Italian Renaissance
●Early Renaissance Artists
●High Renaissance Artists
The feuds (不合) of families，the conflicts of classes and the rivalry (竞争) between the city-states kept the economic structure of Italy in the traditional local order.(停滞不前) In world trade Italy had lost its supremacy (优势) because of the discovery of America in1492 and the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488，the opening of an all-water route (全线贯通) to India which provided a cheaper means of transport.
VII. Reformation and Counter-Reformation
●Reformation
●Pre-Luther Religious Reformers
●Martin Luther and his Doctrines
●John Calvin and Calvinism
●Reformation in England
●Counter-Reformation
●Protestantism and the Rise of Capitalism
A. Reformation
The Reformation was a 16th century religious movement as well as a socio-political movement. It began as Martin Luther(1483-1546) posted on the door of the castle church at the University of Wittenberg his 95 thesis 。This movement which swept over the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists engaged themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues.
B. Pre-Luther Religious Reformers
John Wycliffe, known as “The morning star of the Reformation,”is chief forerunner of the reformation, took up the translation of the Bible into English for the first time in 1382.
Jan Hus was a 15th century Czech religious leader who was burned at the stake。
Martin Luther and his Doctrines
●Martin Luther was the German leader of the protestant Reformation. His doctrine marked
the first break in the unity of the Catholic Church.
●Martin Luther, with his translation of the New Testament and later, the whole Bile into the
vernacular made the Bible accessible to every man, to the average church goer.
John Calvin and Calvinism
●John Calvin “Institutes of the Christian Religion”基督教教义one of the most
influential theological works.
●Calvinism was established by Calvin in the period of Renaissance. Presbyterian
government (长老会). Only those specially elected by God can be saved (上帝的选民).
This belief serves so well to help the rising bourgeoisie on its path (有助于资本主义的兴起).
Reformation in England
●The national religion established after reformation in England was called The Church of
England or The Anglican Church.
●It was under the reign (统治) of Henry Ⅷthat reformation was successful in England.
●The English Bible was adopted (采纳) in England after Reformation.
B. Counter-Reformation
●Counter-Reformation: By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over
the church in Germany. The Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle (坐以待毙)。They mustered (召集) their forces，the dedicated (专用的) Catholic groups，to examine the Church institutions and introduce reforms and improvements (改良)，to bring back its vitality (活力). This recovery of power is often called by historians the Counter-Reformation.
●Council of Trent: The sessions of the Council reaffirmed that the Church had the sole
right to interpret the Bile.
●Ignatius and the Jesuits: Ignatius and his followers called themselves the Jesuits，
members of the Society of Jesus. The Jesuits went through strict (严格的) spiritual training (精神训练) and organized (有组织的) their own colleges to train selected youth who would be centre of their influence in the next generation.
Protestantism and the Rise of Capitalism
●Reformation movement broke the absolute authority of the Roman Catholic Church.
Protestantism which began as a religious movement against the orthodox church of Rome had profound impact on religious life in Europe.
●Europe was to take a new course of development, ascientific revolution was to be under
way and, capitalism was to set in with its dynamic economic principles.
VIII. Renaissance in Other Countries
●Renaissance in France
●Renaissance in Spain
●Renaissance in the North
●Renaissance in England
Renaissance in France
●Rabelais拉伯雷, “Cargantua and Pantagruel”巨人传French writer.
●Ronsard Pleiade七星诗社代表人“Sonnets Pour Helene”法国第一个近代抒情诗人.
●Montaigne蒙田, “Essays”散文集French Writer.
Renaissance in Spain
●Literature
Miguel de Cervantes “Don Quixote”. It is recognized as the father of the modern European novel and has had great impact on world literature.
●Art
El Greco , one of the outstanding artists of the counter-reformation, was a Spanish painter.
“The Burial of Count Orgaz”伯爵的葬礼(典型的反宗教改革).
Renaissance in the North
In the Netherlands:
Erasmus was a great Dutch scholar and humanist. P166
In Flanders:
Pieter Bruegel was a Flemish painter of landscape and scenes of rural life. “The Land of Cockayne”, “The Return of the Hunters”
In Germany
Albrecht Durer, the leader of the Renaissance in Germany. “The Four Horsemen of Apocalypse”, “Knight, Death and the Devil”.
Hans Holbein, the last great German master of the 16th century.
Renaissance in England
●Reasons of its lateness：The war of Roses and Its weak and unimportant position in world
trade.
●It was to produce some towering figures (顶级人物) in the English. William
Shakespeare，Edmund Spenser，Sir Thomas More.
The Reign of Elizabeth I was a period of political and religious stability (稳定) on the one hand and economic prosperity (繁荣) on the other.
●England began to embark (从事) on the road to colonization (殖民扩张) and foreign
control that was to take it onto its heyday (鼎盛) of capitalist development.
●Thomas More , a great humanist “Utopia”P170
William Shakespeare, crowned literature of England
悲剧:
Hamlet (哈姆雷特) P178，Othello (奥赛罗)，King Lear (李尔王)，Macbeth (麦克白)
喜剧:
As You Like It(皆大欢喜) , Twelfth Night (第十二夜),
A midsummer Night’s Dream(仲夏夜之梦),
The Merchant of Venice(威尼斯商人)
悲剧上的特点：
①astonishing variety in presentment (表现上的多样性)
②dramatic movement (戏剧上的时刻)
③in characterization (人物的个性化)
IX. Science and Technology during the Renaissance
Geographical Discoveries
●Christopher Columbus, a Genoese-born navigator and discoverer of the New World.
●Bartholomeu Dias, a Portuguese navigator ,
the Cape of Good Hope
●Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese navigator,
the route to India round the Cape of Good Hope
●Amerigo Vespucci, Italian navigator in whose honor America was named.
Astronomy
●Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who put forward revolutionary ideas in
astronomy at that time. He believed that the earth and other planets orbit about the sun and that earth is not at the centre of the universe.
father of modern astronomy
Centric (日心说)
De Revolutionibus Orbium (天体运行论)
Anatomy
●Leonardo da Vinci
Andreas Vesalius , a Flemish anatomist, the founder of modern medicine.
Printing
●Aldus Manutius, the foremost printer in Italy
Political Science and Historiography
●Dante
The equality (平等) of the divine (神) power and the secular (世俗) power. (Satan)
●Niccolo Machiavelli
Father of political science.
Prince 诸侯论
Discourses 演讲篇
X. Summing-up
The Renaissance created a culture which freed man to discover and enjoy the world in a way not possible under the medieval Church’s dispensation. In this release lay the way of development of the modern world. The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow. It shattered Medieval Church’s stifling control over man, thus paving the way for capitalism. P183
Review
●Why do we say Renaissance first came to Italy？
(what propositions先决条件were there in Italy for renaissance to flourish？What priorities 优势were there in Italy for renaissance to flourish？)
答：1、Because of its geographical position (有利的地理位置)，foreign trade developed early in Italy. This brought Italy into contact with other cultures and gave rise to (有推动力) urban (城市的) economy and helped Italy to accumulated wealth (积累财富)。
2、Beginning from the 11th century，cities began to rise in central and north Italy. But there existed (存在) rivalry (竞争) among the cities and they were constantly (不变的) at war with each other.
3、City-states (城邦) have been established in Italy in beginning from the 11th century.
4、For two centuries beginning from the late 15th century，Florence was the golden city which gave girth to a whole generation of poets，scholars，artists and sculptors (雕塑家)。There was in Florence a revival of interest in classical learning and rising of humanist ideas.
●What are the characteristics of Renaissance art？
(How does Renaissance art differ from the other kinds of arts？)
答：1、Art broke away from the domination of the church.
2、Themes of paintings changed to appreciation(鉴赏) of all aspects of nature and man.
3、The artists studied the ruins of Roman and Greek temples and put many of the principles (原则信念) of ancient civilization into their works. They began to be supported by individual collectors (私人收藏品)。
4、Artists introduced in their works scientific theories of anatomy and perspective (透视)。
●Why did Renaissance decline in Italy in the end？
答：1、The feuds (不合) of families，the conflicts of classes and the rivalry (竞争) between the city-states kept the economic structure of Italy in the traditional local order.(停滞不前)
2、In world trade Italy had lost its supremacy (优势) because of the discovery of America in 1492 and the rounding (环绕) of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488，the opening of an all-water route (全线贯通) to India which provided (供应) a cheaper means of transport.
●How did capitalism rise and develop in Europe？
答：1、Protestantism was prepared for capitalist development.
2、Imagination，creation and free thinking (思维)。
3、Calvinism.
4、Navigation (航海) and the discoveries of new lands.
5、Renaissance.
6、Reformation.
●What is the great significance of the reformation？
(What positive influence does the reformation exert on world culture？)
答：1、The Roman Catholic Church was never the international court to which all rulers and states were to be morally responsible for.
2、Economically，peasants all over Europe had no need to pay a good amount of their gains to the Pope.
3、In educational and cultural matters，the monopoly of the church was broken.
4、In religion，Protestantism brought into being different forms of Christianity to the absolute rule of the Roman Catholic Church.
5、In language，the dominant position of Latin had to give way to (为…让步) the national languages as a result of various translations of the Bible into the vernacular.
6、In spirit，absolute obedience (盲从) became out-moded (不复存在) and the spirit of quest (探索)，debate ，was ushered in by the reformists.(凡事都要问为什么的精神)
●Why do we say renaissance came to England very late，but in England renaissance
reached its climax？
答：1、The war of Roses and Its weak and unimportant position in world trade.
2、It was to produce some towering figures (顶级人物) in the English. William Shakespeare，Edmund Spenser，Sir Thomas More.
3、The Reign of Elizabeth I was a period of political and religious stability (稳定) on the one hand and economic prosperity on the other. England began to embark (从事) on the road to colonization (殖民扩张) and foreign control that was to take it onto its heyday (鼎盛) of capitalist development.
●What contribution did the Renaissance make to the world culture？
答：1、The Renaissance created a culture which freed man to discover and enjoy the world in a
way not possible under the medieval Church‘s dispensation.
2、The Reformation dealt the feudal theocracy a fatal blow. (给…以致命打击)
What are the Geographical Discoveries in the Renaissance？
The Renaissance was the golden age of geographical discoveries：by the year of 1600 the surface of the known earth was doubled 。
1、Columbus：
Columbus discovered the land of America. On his fourth voyage (航行) he explored (探测) the coast (海岸) of Central America(中美洲)。
2、Dias：
Dias was a Portuguese navigator (领航员) who discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487.
3、Da Gama：
Gama was a Portuguese navigator，who discovered the route to India round the Cape of Good Hope between the years of 1497 and 1498.
4、Amerig (亚美利哥)
Amerigo was the Italian navigator on whose honour America was named. His discovered and explored the mouth of the Amazon (亚马逊河) and accepted South America as a new continent.
Division V: The 17th Century
I. Introduction
In the 17th century Europe advanced from the Middle Ages to the modern times. This advance began in science, in astronomy, physics and pure mathematics, owing to the work of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Descartes. Their work helped to create modern science and in a sense, the modern world.
So we say, The 17th century is very important period from the Middle Ages to the modern times.
The Importance of the 17th Century
1. Science, such as astronomy, physics and mathematics is fully developed in the 17th century. The scientists firstly abandoned the middle age’s loyalty to the Church and the traditional reliance to the authority.
2. With the development of the science and the trade, people are chanted to discover the new --- the new land, new planet and star, new phenomenon --- anything new. In this continuously discovery and creation, a kind of new modern philosophy of materialism is brought about.
3. It is this kind of philosophy that push the political struggle, launched by the newly emerged class, the bourgeoisie and other classes.
Simply to say, in the 17th century, the science, the people and the society are greatly changed to make a prelinmary preparation to enter the new modern times.
II. Science
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473--- 1543)
He didn’t belong to the 17th century, but he was the immediate forerunner of modern science
欧洲历史,宗教,建筑,雕塑知识汇总。
2019年2月意大利旅行读书笔记 金永生 当我静坐在威尼斯湖边送走残阳时， 当我仰望高入云霄的米兰大教堂时， 当我行走在五渔村海边聆听海浪拍岸声时， 当我在澹澹欲雨的天空下凝视着圆柱的比萨斜塔时； 当我站在米开朗琪罗雕塑前俯瞰整个佛罗伦萨城时， 当我置身在充满历史厚重的千年古城罗马时， …… 很多问题总在脑海里回荡，为什么他们能有千年的建筑屹立不倒？为什么他们的建筑都是石制而我们是木制？为什么这些建筑是圆形的？为什么来欧洲旅游总是看一座座的教堂？这些教堂有区别吗？欧洲文明的基因是什么？欧洲文明的主要脉络是什么？我来旅游想看到什么？我又看得懂什么呢？是什么样的历史造就欧洲哲学？哲学又与宗教是什么样的关系呢？我为什么需要了解历史呢？历史又是什么呢？威尔·杜兰特说：“绝大部分历史是猜测，其余的部分则是偏见”，中国也流行一句说：“历史是任人打扮的小姑娘”，有人说这是胡适先生的名言，也有考证说他没说过，或许也因为他和杜兰特都是杜威学生的缘故吧，不管怎么样，看似平淡的几句话，却又那么富有哲理，我们需要探索真实的历史客观存在，但是或许没有答案，或许答案就在这里，柏拉图说：这个世界上有一种真理、有一种道德、有一种美，它不是被“约定”出来的（如同当代很多真学家主张的），不是人“造作”出来的，而是“自始至终就客观存在的”，威尔·杜兰特又说：“历史没有任何意义，它没有教给我们任何东西，它浩瀚无涯的过去只是错误的一再上演，而这些错误注定要在未来更大的舞台上，以更大的规模发生？”不管存在还是毫无意义，我还是试图把脑海里的凌乱知识做个简单的摘抄汇总，以留存自己纪念吧，但这是非常艰难的，因为无论用编年体，还是比较方法论，亦或纪传体，要想压缩在几千字里面，似乎自己难以做到，虽然自己不断从十几万字压到几万字再到几千字。（此内容来自《极简欧洲史》，《历史的教训》，《建筑的精神分析》，《西方雕塑发展史》,《欧洲文明史》，《全球通史》以及网络查找） 一、欧洲文明的来源：也是一个混合的文明，起源于希腊，但后来融合了罗马文明、基督教文明和日耳曼蛮族的战士文明，组成了欧洲文明的三大核心。 1：希腊人的观点：这是一个简单、符合逻辑、能以数学表达的世界。 2：基督教的观点：这是个邪恶的世界，唯有耶稣能拯救它。 3：日耳曼蛮族的观点：打仗是好玩的事。 最终使得这三个组合成功地实现了平衡，虽然这种平衡极不稳定，中间也有波折，但总体来说这股力量和文明在欧洲历史上存在了上千年之久。直到1400年，这个混合体开始分崩离析，其标志性的事件就是：文艺复兴。 二、欧洲的历史大致分为三段： 1：古典欧洲，公元476年罗马帝国覆灭之前称之为古典欧洲； 2：中世纪，公元476年到1400年，是黑暗的中世纪； 3：1400之后是近代欧洲。 文艺复兴：是15世纪发生并没有直接攻击基督教，而是主张人们应该从宗教中解放出来，基督教是人的基本观点，没有对也没有错，主张人们不要过度关注，而应该关注宗教以外的世界。宗教改革：是16世纪以《圣经》的训示和教诲为据，对罗马教廷进行改革的运动。宗教改革所带来的直接信息是：基督教不是罗马人的宗教。
欧洲史总结名词
◆绝对君主制 ●形成的要素：封建势力的衰落，英国玫瑰战争和法国胡格诺战争使得封建贵族势力元气 大伤。地理大发现造成货币革命，以货币地租为生的贵族无法继续维持。君主是新兴阶级与贵族之间的均势造成的仲裁者。 ●具体做法：（1）完善的税收体制：国内征税、海外扩张（重商主义，商人和国家合作）。 （2）国家常备军：对外捍卫领土完整，对内威慑地方领主。（3）官僚体系：原来所有权力全部分封，君主需要新的体制进行中央集权，向下派专员到地方夺权（主要是派收税官，收回财权）。 ●理论支撑：（1）马基雅维利《君主论》：破除神学、道德，把政治世俗化，国家利益至 上。（2）霍布斯《利维坦》：国家是社会契约的产物，臣民为保护自身安全赋予君主专制权力，君主建立政府。契约一旦形成就不能抱怨暴君出现。（3）博丹《共和六书》：提出君权民授，但不否定君权神授。君权要受到约束，要尊重理性、法律、宗教，尤其是上帝的律法。 ◆雅各宾专政 ●背景：路易十六砍头，内忧外患。 ●派别：青年为主，激进冒险。 ●主要措施：打击囤积居奇，全面限价——保证必需品，是稳定社会的必要手段。颁布惩 治犯罪嫌疑人的条例——后期成为恐怖，反革命手段扩大化，未经审判处决，安插死刑罪名（包括反革命罪、思想上的犯罪等）。全民征兵——保卫共和国，与反法势力作战。 ●出现内讧，丹东转向右翼，开始怀疑卢梭，与罗伯斯庇尔发生冲突，后被处死。 ◆施泰因—哈登堡改革 ●背景：1806年普鲁士在耶拿被拿破仑打败，军队瓦解，领土失去3/4。“耶拿之辱”激 起民族主义，施泰因、哈登堡成为政府高级官僚，决定进行改革，为之后的普鲁士—德国道路奠定了基础。 ●原则：受到法国的影响，提倡自由民主；但不能彻底摧毁旧制度，防止恐怖统治、暴民 统治，强调民族传统，保留历史延续性——反思法国革命，强调个性而非共性。 ●行政方面：废除枢密院，建立有明确职权范围、部门分工的责任内阁，决策采用合议制。 ●经济方面：1807《十月敕令》解放农奴；1811《调整敕令》用赎买的办法使农奴获得自 由。牺牲了农民的利益，是农业改革的“普鲁士道路”。1850s农奴才完全解放。 ●军事方面：模仿法国建立公民部队。建立现代义务兵役制；考试选拔军官，平民可以上 升；建立军事培训学校。 ●教育方面：席勒的“新人文主义”，有别于启蒙主义满足社会实际的工具式教育，塑造 全面发展。洪堡改革义务教育制度。提倡中学分流，设立“人文中学”。1810柏林大学，采用现代模式进行教育。 ●评价：行政自由高于宪政自由的体现，改革强调国民性。 ◆维也纳体系 ●维也纳会议是从1814年9月18日到1815年6月9日之间在奥地利维也纳外交会议。 本次会议由奥地利政治家梅特涅主持。拿破仑战争中打破了旧有的欧洲秩序，传播了法国大革命思想，要解决战后欧洲格局的问题，保证欧洲的长久和平。 ●法国外交家塔列朗出席，成为了赢家——确立了正统主义的原则。即战争爆发前，欧洲 王朝和政治秩序被承认为正统；同时承认维也纳会议不能改变战争前欧洲的王朝和政治秩序，要永远清除以暴力夺权的思想。其他欧洲国家认为应当对法国宽容处理，而不能过度削弱。要按相互牵制的原则分配领土。参会者主要是保守派，反对共和主义和革命。
《极简欧洲史》读后感_《极简欧洲史》读书心得五篇
《极简欧洲史》读后感_《极简欧洲史》读书心得五篇 ----WORD文档，下载后可编辑修改---- 《极简欧洲史》读后感1 作为一名理科生，一直对历史不怎么感兴趣，但通过读《极简欧洲史》这本书，让我感觉历史还是蛮有意思。记得18年前第一次出国，到了英国、法国和德国三个国家，当时深受震撼，气势宏伟的教堂、成就非凡的大学、美轮美奂的艺术品、如诗如画的乡村都给我留下了深刻的印象，处处体现出欧洲厚重的历史和文明积淀。后来看《都铎王朝》《风中的女王》《权力的游戏》等电视剧，发现自己对于欧洲的历史知识储备太少了，欧洲为什么那么强大?欧洲为什么对世界的影响那么深远?通过读《极简欧洲史》这本书，你可以得到一些答案。 一、主要内容 全书分为上下两个部分。 第一部分只有两个章节，第一章是古典时期到中世纪的简史，主要讲述了欧洲文明的三个组成元素， 一是代表着科技和文化的古希腊罗马学术; 二是代表着政治和宗教的; 三是代表着军事武力和战士文化的日耳曼蛮族。 这三个元素相互影响，相互对立和强化，首先是公元313年，君士坦丁大帝公开表态支持会，罗马帝国变成的天下;其次是为了丰富和发展自己的教义，将古希腊和罗马的智力成果保存下来;再次是日
耳曼蛮族入侵后，发现自己在科技、政治等方面落后太多，逐渐接受了文明，最终这三大元素形成了欧洲文明的内核。 第二章主要讲述了自公元1400年开始的近代欧洲史。 通过古典时期三大要素的融合，掌握着先进文明的成为真正的统领者，拥有了无比的权力和财富，但宗教的腐败也从很大程度上造就了黑暗的中世纪。进入近代欧洲，以文艺复兴、宗教改革、科学革命、启蒙运动、浪漫主义运动为代表，以各种方式消减了教会的权威，极大促进了科学的进步和发展，人们的思想和自由更加解放，也造就了更加灿烂的欧洲文明。 第二部分由六个章节组成，均是一些细节性的描述，从战争、民主、宗教和政治、语言、平民生活等角度对欧洲历史和文明进行了深入的剖析。 二、几点感受 (一)要重视内部控制 从单位管理的角度，内部控制主要有两大核心内容，一是相互监督和制约，二是具备完善的规章制度。从国家治理的角度看，结合本书的内容，以及我国历史的兴衰来看，也要讲求内部控制，一是要加强民主监督，加强对公权力的监督和约束。“并非所有东西都归国王所有”，是欧洲政府思维的基石，也是欧洲自由和繁荣的基石。 历史上欧洲的国王比较悲催，既受教皇的控制，又受贵族的制约，一不小心还容易被送上断头台，所以欧洲的君王大都谨慎低调。反观我国甚至整个亚洲的历史上，因权力缺乏约束而实施暴政、纵情声色
武汉大学培养方案 世界史专业(已查找)
历史学院世界历史专业（试验班） 本科人才培养方案 一、专业代码、名称 专业代码：060102 专业名称：世界历史（试验班）World History 二、专业培养目标 本专业培养视野开阔、知识面广、具有较高综合素质和较强分析问题能力，既能从事世界史专业研究，又能适应现代社会多层面需要的高级人才。 三、专业特色和培养要求 世界历史专业（试验班）是武汉大学“国家基础学科(历史学)人才培养和科学研究基地”和武汉大学高级研究中心共同开办的教学改革试验班。要求学生系统学习世界主要国家和地区的历史和文化，精通外国语，其中英语通过国家六级证书考试，法语和德语达到借助字典阅读专业书籍的水平，掌握从事历史研究的基本理论、基本方法和基本技能，善于思辩和写作，初步具备独立从事世界历史和外国问题研究的能力。 四、学制和学分要求 学制：四年。 学分要求：学生修满154学分。 五、学位授予 授予历史学学士学位。 六、专业主干（核心）课程 学科平台课：《中国通史（一）、（二）》、《世界通史（一）》 世界通史、中国通史、西方史学史、西方典籍导读、世界经济史、西方政治思想史、国际关系史、第二次世界大战史、美国史、英国史、德国史、法国史。采用英文原版教材，聘请国内外知名专家讲授。 七、双语课程 1、《世界通史（二）（三）》《A History of the Modern World》 and 《A History of the World in the Twentieth Century》 2、《英国史专题》《The Oxford History of Britain》 3、《法国史专题》《Histoire de La France》 4、《亚太地区史专题》《The Special Subject of the History of Asia-Pacific Region》 5、《美国社会文化》《The Society and Culture of the United States》
极简欧洲史读后感
极简欧洲史读后感 SANY GROUP system office room 【SANYUA16H-
点亮心灯繁花入眼、辩杂为简 ---《你一定爱读的极简欧洲史》读后感 假期闲来，细细品读了推荐书目《你一定爱读的极简欧洲史》。本来我对历史知之甚少，对历史的理解也甚为浅薄，历史知识往往需要我先生的教导。但这本书以独特的叙述风格和新颖的观点，将欧洲历史娓娓道来又能以精炼的观点将欧洲各国历史的种种“繁花”汇聚同意，展现了一部本人“爱读”又“极简”的欧洲史。 首先，我一直认为欧洲历史的纷繁复杂确实让人烧脑不已。希腊、罗马、不列颠、法兰西、德意志的纷至沓来；宗教、城邦、战争、文艺复兴、思想启蒙、工业革命目不暇接。这都是我们耳熟能详的东西，却并不谙熟其中的联系，欧洲历史的错综复杂、各种历史线索的藕断丝连，使每一个想要了解欧洲历史的中国人都不免头疼。 但澳大利亚作者约翰.赫斯特却用精炼的语言、新奇的观点将欧洲历史的脉络以新颖的角度趁现在我们面前。细读本书不难发现，在约翰.赫斯特笔下的欧洲无论是事件的横轴还是时间的纵轴，都是一脉相承，融会贯通。从希腊罗马开始，它的精神和文化一直流淌到现在的欧洲、美洲和澳洲人的血液里，也完全糅合进他们生活的方方面面。长久以来，包括我们国家的历史学者，一直认为东北亚的历史文明才有这种一脉相承的格局。因为包括大和民族、蒙古族、朝鲜族在内，民族的长久以来的统一是最主要的旋律，而儒家文化对其绝对思想的统治力直到今天，漫步在东京、首尔乃至乌兰巴托的街头，都会产生无比熟悉的亲切感。以中国为例，学者们一直认为统一的思想、完整的历史脉络才能带来今日的中国。而这本书让我认识到，战争、天主教伊斯兰教文化的冲突、各个大小不一又连年征战的城邦，也是有无尽的羁绊和密不可分的脉络牵引整个欧洲。从罗马帝国的成立，欧洲就不是一个分
AP历史之欧洲历史介绍
AP历史之欧洲历史介绍 过去几年，全球AP考生选择欧洲历史的一年比一年多，总人数与AP美国历史不相上下。但是就国内而言，选择考欧洲史的同学相比于AP美国史和世界史来说，算是极少数。 为什么要学习AP欧洲历史? 现代自然科学、民主思想、机械工业、现代国家、议会政治等要么发源于欧洲，要么最早在这里得到充分体现。同时，欧洲政治、贸易、科学和文化也对欧洲各地、美洲，甚至全世界都产生了深远的影响。因此，欧洲被称为文化传播的核心。 欧洲拥有辉煌而悠久的历史。但AP欧洲史会直接跳过古希腊古罗马，跳过中世纪，直接从文艺复兴开始到苏联解体结束，且很少涉及亚洲、非洲、美洲等其他大陆的事情，因此AP欧洲史在时间和空间上比AP世界史范围更小，内容更详细。比AP美国历史更丰富，既有国家内部的政治、经济、社会、文化演变，又有国与国之间合作与竞争。 学习AP欧洲史，了解西方文明，文学史、艺术史(文艺复兴)、哲学史(启蒙运动)和宗教(宗教改革)均有涉及。同学们可以根据自己的兴趣在这三门纯历史科目中做出选择。 AP欧洲历史涉及哪些主要知识点呢? AP欧洲历史的学习关键在于把握三条脉络，一是时间，二是空间，三是主题。 首先，从时间上来看，AP欧洲历史的年代跨度是从1405年至今，主要包括四个历史阶段： 第一阶段：1405-1648，包括文艺复兴，新航路的开辟，宗教改革，宗教战争等。
第二阶段：1648-1815，包括西欧日益强大，东欧俄国、普鲁士、奥地利君主国影响变大，科学的世界观，争夺财富和争夺帝国的战争，启蒙运动，法国革命，维也纳会议等。 第三阶段：1815-1914，包括英国工业革命，各种主义的出现，大民族国家在全球范围的强化。 第四阶段：1914至今，包括欧洲崛起为世界权力中心以及它因陷入两次毁灭性的世界大战而走向衰落，俄国革命，战后重建及冷战，东欧剧变等。 AP欧洲历史并不强调死记硬背历史史实，而是更关注每个阶段发生的重大事件的背景原因，以及事件之间的联系。尤其是希望同学们能提高历史思维方式，如按时间顺序的推理能力，分析历史材料，得出并支持一个论点，找出历史事件之间的联系。 其次，空间上，欧洲重要国家(如英国，法国，德国，西班牙、意大利等)均有涉及，有的国家和地区(如波兰)篇幅会比较少，一带而过即可。学习时手边不妨备一张欧洲地图随时查看。 第三，欧洲历史内容丰富，有侧重，可大致分成五大主题： 主题一：欧洲和世界的互动 1500年期，大西洋变成一个新的启程点。新航线的开辟，不断地人口迁移，遍布全球的殖民地的建立，世界范围内的贸易活动，不同文明交叉相遇，各个文明地区日益与跨大西洋的经济体系联系在一起。 主题二：贫困和繁荣
《极简欧洲史》读后感
《极简欧洲史》读后感 本书以清晰、幽默、发人深省的笔调，杂以活泼的插图，叙述了一个不同凡响的文明，及其对人类社会的巨大冲击与巨大贡献。 《极简欧洲史》读后感作为一名理科生，一直对历史不怎么感兴趣，但通过读《极简欧洲史》这本书，让我感觉历史还是蛮有意思。记得18年前第一次出国，到了英国、法国和德国三个国家，当时深受震撼，气势宏伟的教堂、成就非凡的大学、美轮美奂的艺术品、如诗如画的乡村都给我留下了深刻的印象，处处体现出欧洲厚重的历史和文明积淀。后来看《都铎王朝》《风中的女王》《权力的游戏》等电视剧，发现自己对于欧洲的历史知识储备太少了，欧洲为什么那么强大？欧洲为什么对世界的影响那么深远？通过读《极简欧洲史》这本书，你可以得到一些答案。 一、主要内容全书分为上下两个部分。 第一部分只有两个章节，第一章是古典时期到中世纪的简史，主要讲述了欧洲文明的三个组成元素，一是代表着科技和文化的古希腊罗马学术；二是代表着政治和宗教的基督教；三是代表着军事武力和战士文化的日耳曼蛮族。 这三个元素相互影响，相互对立和强化，首先是公元313年，君士坦丁大帝公开表态支持基督教会，罗马帝国变成基督教的天下；其次是基督教为了丰富和发展自己的教义，将古希腊和
罗马的智力成果保存下来；再次是日耳曼蛮族入侵后，发现自己在科技、政治等方面落后太多，逐渐接受了基督教文明，最终这三大元素形成了欧洲文明的内核。 第二章主要讲述了自公元1400年开始的近代欧洲史。 通过古典时期三大要素的融合，掌握着先进文明的基督教成为真正的统领者，拥有了无比的权力和财富，但宗教的腐败也从很大程度上造就了黑暗的中世纪。进入近代欧洲，以文艺复兴、宗教改革、科学革命、启蒙运动、浪漫主义运动为代表，以各种方式消减了教会的权威，极大促进了科学的进步和发展，人们的思想和自由更加解放，也造就了更加灿烂的欧洲文明。 第二部分由六个章节组成，均是一些细节性的描述，从战争、民主、宗教和政治、语言、平民生活等角度对欧洲历史和文明进行了深入的剖析。 二、几点感受 （一）要重视内部控制从单位管理的角度，内部控制主要有两大核心内容，一是相互监督和制约，二是具备完善的规章制度。从国家治理的角度看，结合本书的内容，以及我国历史的兴衰来看，也要讲求内部控制，一是要加强民主监督，加强对公权力的监督和约束。“并非所有东西都归国王所有”，是欧洲政府思维的基石，也是欧洲自由和繁荣的基石。 历史上欧洲的国王比较悲催，既受教皇的控制，又受贵族的制约，一不小心还容易被送上断头台，所以欧洲的君王大都谨慎
人教统编版高中历史必修下册双基培优练：第3课 中古时期的欧洲
第3课中古时期的欧洲 一、选择题 1．欧洲学者认为,在古典时代和现代之间存在着一个被称为“黑暗时代”的“中世纪”。这一时期大约是() A.公元前5—前4世纪 B.公元5—15世纪 C.公元15-16世纪 D.公元17—18世纪 2．在中古时代的西欧庄园内，起着维护封建领主利益和庄园公共秩序作用的机构是() A．庄园法庭B．庄园封君 C．公民大会D．庄园封臣 3．西欧城市重新兴起后，市民同封建领主展开了激烈的斗争，其主要目标是() A．保卫城市B．谋求生存 C．争取自治权D．支持国君 4．《查士丁尼法典》规定“人人都应安分守法”,还特别强调奴隶必须听命于他的主人,不许有任何反抗。这些规定说明拜占庭帝国的法律注重() A.保护私有财产 B.维护帝国统治 C.调解民事纠纷 D.发展商业贸易 5．“13世纪以前,他们支付很少的货币地租,经常支付实物地租。他们每周几日在领主自营地上做各种各样的农活。他们的各种义务受习惯法的约束,不是由领主任意征纳的。”材料中的“他们”是() A.封建领主 B.城市市民 C.庄园农奴 D.神职人员 6．1077年,罗马教皇与神圣罗马帝国皇帝亨利四世在任命主教等问题上矛盾尖锐,教皇宣布废黜亨利四世,革除其教籍,并煽动诸侯反抗亨利四世。亨利四世被迫冒着严寒,长途跋涉到意大利卡诺莎城堡,极尽卑微悔过,受尽侮辱后才获教皇赦免,史称“卡诺莎之辱”。这一事件反映出() A.罗马教皇权力取代世俗权力 B.天主教会与专制王权相制衡 C.神权统治阻碍民族国家发展 D.封建诸侯是神权政治的支柱 7．“男人在田间劳作,女人操持家务;大家一起去教堂做弥撒,听牧师布道,做晚祷;享用一日三餐或领主为酬劳农奴的收割而提供的丰盛晚宴。”这一田园风光常见于()。 A.雅典城邦 B.罗马帝国 C.阿拉伯帝国
中世纪文化的特点
中世纪文化的特点 从公元5世纪至17世纪中叶英国资产阶级革命爆发,是欧洲史上的“中世纪”。中世纪是欧洲封建制度形成,发展和衰落崩溃的历史。中世纪的文化包含了很多的内容，如：神学、文学、哲学和音乐等等。每种文化都具有当时最具特色的风格，因历史时期的转换受到人们不同程度的评价。对于中世纪的文化，我们究竟应该持一种怎样的态度呢？ 由于中世纪有落后反动的一面也有进步革命的一面，所以导致人们对中世纪文化的评价存在偏颇的观点。17世纪的英国唯物主义者和18世纪的法国唯物主义者形成了一种流行的错误观点,即认为中世纪是人类历史的“中断”，中世纪文化是统治阶级的压迫欺诈与老百姓的愚昧无知结合的产物。黑格尔从唯心论辩证法出发,在《历史哲学》中论断:“中世纪的艺术是沉了的夜色,文艺复兴的艺术是新吐的曙光。”而恩格斯则认为：封建制度较之奴隶制,毕竟是更进步的社会结构,我们不能对中世纪文化全盘否定。所以他在严厉批判中世纪的愚昧朦胧的同时,也批判了18世纪唯物主义者的看法,肯定中世纪文化进步,革命的一面。 下面我们来浅谈一下中世纪文化中的四个方面：神学、哲学与艺术。 西方基督教的兴起，象征着古代的结束和中世纪的开始。漫长的中世纪是“上帝”统治人类的时代，时间跨度将近一千年。自公元393年基督教成为罗马“国教”，西方进入了“政教合一”神权体制的思想黑暗年代。人民遭受着宗教和国家权威的双重奴役。如果说古希腊艺术是以存在为主体、重视视觉直觉的自然化艺术，那么中世纪的艺术则是以宗教为主体，重在表现情感和理念的理念化艺术。中世纪艺术是非个人化和非自然化的。所有的艺术只与上帝和上帝的教义有关，所有类型的艺术品如雕刻、绘画、彩绘玻璃等只能在上帝的世界——教堂里存在。艺术成为宗教的奴仆和宗教意识形态的宣教工具。艺术只用来图解《圣经》，以形象直观生动有力的视觉样式直接作用于教民，尤其是广大的不识字的教民，使他们接受并崇拜宗教所宣扬的道德和精神的意义。基督教中“不要崇拜偶像”的教条使得曾经是古希腊艺术主体的大型人物立体雕像蜕变为依附于教堂建筑上的神像浮雕。立体雕像艺术沦为浮雕是艺术丧失其独立性的象征。古希腊雕刻中所崇尚的人体力与美的风貌在中世纪丧失殆尽。后人至今可以通过欧洲的教堂艺术来想象和认识中世纪的世界。中世纪艺术的风格与希腊艺术迥然相异：远离现实生活，趋于装饰性、象征性和概念化的抽象表现手法。中世纪艺术风格的形成源自于两个思想源泉：一是柏拉图的“超验理念”，人们崇拜精神追求，鄙视世俗欲望；二是基督教的教义：只有上帝基督才全知全能，人类对上帝顶礼膜拜而失去自我的独立思考。中世纪的文化结构具有高度的符号学性质：每一事物都有社会价值，一切事物都有相对应的意义，即也就有对应的指号。意义即为存在的指号，并与价值观念相关。中世纪文化的内容与表达之间具有很大的肖似性。很多的概念都有着相对应的记号（如十字架为上帝的象征）。中世纪型艺术的能指（画面）结构清晰，但比喻或象征的倾向很浓，所指意义内涵是较抽象的宗教观念。 中世纪的思想特征是蔑视物质，重视记号所表达的意义。“代表本身的事物（用于实用的目的）在文化代码结构中占据最低层；作为另一类事物（用于观念表达的目的，如权力、神圣、高贵、力量、富有、智慧等）则与前者不同。由于意义问题与价值相联系，就产生了把各种文化记号的表达与内容分等的问题。此外，记号的价值学不仅受事物的价值影响，而且受内容与表达之间关系的某些定量特征的影响。”[4] 如宗教的物品，它的内容相对应的价值就可能达到较高的层面。如十字架原本是罗马帝国执行死刑的刑场标记，由于基督教将其作为圣像装饰物，其内含的价值意义使这个标记成为教民崇拜的对象。这种崇拜行为是符号性的，因为教民崇拜的不是圣像装饰物的物质性本身，而是它所代表的宗教观念与权威。（Fig.x 意义层面等级结构图）在这种意义等级结构中，占据最高位置的是不含有物质性的
《极简欧洲史》读后感
爱的悦读 点亮心灯繁花入眼、辩杂为简 ---《你一定爱读的极简欧洲史》读后感 假期闲来，细细品读了推荐书目《你一定爱读的极简欧洲史》。本来我对历史知之甚少，对历史的理解也甚为浅薄，历史知识往往需要我先生的教导。但这本书以独特的叙述风格和新颖的观点，将欧洲历史娓娓道来又能以精炼的观点将欧洲各国历史的种种“繁花”汇聚同意，展现了一部本人“爱读”又“极简”的欧洲史。 首先，我一直认为欧洲历史的纷繁复杂确实让人烧脑不已。希腊、罗马、不列颠、法兰西、德意志的纷至沓来；宗教、城邦、战争、文艺复兴、思想启蒙、工业革命目不暇接。这都是我们耳熟能详的东西，却并不谙熟其中的联系，欧洲历史的错综复杂、各种历史线索的藕断丝连，使每一个想要了解欧洲历史的中国人都不免头疼。 但澳大利亚作者约翰.赫斯特却用精炼的语言、新奇的观点将欧洲历史的脉络以新颖的角度趁现在我们面前。细读本书不难发现，在约翰.赫斯特笔下的欧洲无论是事件的横轴还是时间的纵轴，都是一脉相承，融会贯通。从希腊罗马开始，它的精神和文化一直流淌到现在的欧洲、美洲和澳洲人的血液里，也完全糅合进他们生活的方方面面。长久以来，包括我们国家的历史学者，一直认为东北亚的历史文明才有这种一脉相承的格局。因为包括大和民族、蒙古族、朝鲜族在内，民族的长久以来的统一是最主要的旋律，而儒家文化对其绝对思想的统治力直到今天，漫步在东京、首尔乃至乌兰巴托的街头，都会产生无比熟悉的亲切感。以中国为例，学者们一直认为统一的思想、完整的历史脉络才能带来今日的中国。而这本书让我认识到，战争、天主教伊斯兰教文化的冲突、各个大小不一又连年征战的城邦，也是有无尽的羁绊和密不可分的脉络牵引整个欧洲。从罗马帝国的成立，欧洲就不是一个分散、独立的的个体，而是通过古希腊罗马学术、基督教教义、日耳曼蛮族不断角力的过程中，变成现今这样一个密不可分的整体。 其次，古希腊罗马学术、基督教教义、日耳曼蛮族是作者对欧洲历史的高度凝练的概括。正是因为三者的缠绵交融又彼此对立，致使这三种文化的力量此消彼长，再加上伊斯兰文明的影响（尤其是伊比利亚半岛），使得欧洲的以前、现在、未来都存在着发展、变迁的模式与轨迹。孱弱的国王、权力时大时小的教会、与王权抗衡的教皇、后来大权在握的国会、独特
欧洲史试题
欧洲史试题 1．希腊神话中的美神是（阿佛洛狄忒），她在罗马神话中被称为（维纳斯） 希腊神话中的三代神王分别是（乌兰诺斯）、（克洛诺斯）、（宙斯），希腊神话中的智慧女神是（雅典娜），美神是（阿佛洛狄忒），酒神是（狄奥尼索斯） 2．关于希腊神话与传说的最著名的史诗是荷马的（伊利亚特）和（奥德修记），而对众神谱系进行系统性梳理的则是赫西俄德的（神谱） 希腊神话主要是（地中海）世界神话与北方印欧语世界神话融合的结果，在“黑暗时代“末期杂乱无章的希腊神话传说进行编撰整理工作的两位重要人物是荷马和（赫西俄德）。 希腊悲剧的命运主题典型地表现在（俄狄浦斯）杀父娶母的悲剧故事中。 在希腊神话中，真正具有形而上学意义的决定性力量是潜藏在诸神背后的（命运） 3 以克洛诺斯为首的老一辈神族是（提坦）神族，以宙斯为首的新一代希腊神族是（奥林匹斯）神族；与希腊正统宗教相对立的希腊民间神秘祭叫做（奥尔弗斯）。 4．西方的历史之父是（希罗多德），悲剧之父是（埃斯库罗斯），哲学之父是（泰勒斯），雅典民主制的杰出领袖是（伯里克利）希腊最杰出的唯心主义哲学家是（柏拉图）。他的哲学体系通常
被称为（理念论）/希腊最主要的唯物主义哲学家是（泰勒斯），他的哲学体系通常被称作（水本原说）；希腊哲学和科学思想的集大成者是（亚里斯多德）。 雅典民主制的杰出领袖是（伯里克利），在希腊城邦时期因其思想的超越性而殉道、并且成为后来整个西方文化的“圣人”的是（苏格拉底） 希腊宗教的基本特点主要表现为直观的自然崇拜和明朗的感觉主义，而整个希腊文化的个性特征就是（和谐之美） 与奥林匹斯神话相对应的希腊民间神秘祭叫做（奥尔弗斯） 柏拉图之后，对基督教神学思想影响最大的两个非基督教哲学家是（普洛提诺）和（斯多葛） 柏拉图关于（理念世界）与感觉世界二远对立的思想成为基督教神学的重要理论来源。 西方教会的著名教父（奥古斯丁）在《上帝之城》一书中为基督教的灵肉对立思想和修道运动奠定了理论基础。 在罗马的早期扩张中，罗马与它在地中海地区的头号劲敌（迦太基）进行了三次艰苦的战争，这些战争被称为（布匿）战争。5．罗马历史上的“前三头同盟”是指（克拉苏）、（庞培）和（恺撒）为了共同对抗元老院而缔结的政治同盟。 罗马历史上的“后三头同盟“是指（屋大维）、（安东尼）和（雷必达）之间的同盟。 6．《圣经》中的“旧约”是指（摩西）在西乃上上代表全体犹太人
你一定爱读的极简欧洲史读书报告
你一定爱读的极简欧洲史 ——20144307 张天生 近日读了《你一定爱读的极简欧洲史》，这本书在豆瓣的评分是8.4，其实就我本人而言，是对历史一窍不通的，读这本书时遇到了种种挫折和艰辛，现在谈一谈我对这本书的理解。 首先是关于欧洲历史我的大体认知： 书的作者在开始就提出欧洲文明是一直唯一能让其他地区马首是瞻的文明。 在欧洲文明发端之初，它的组成元素有三： 1．古希腊和罗马文化。 2．基督教——犹太教（犹太民族之宗教）的一个奇特分支。 3．对罗马帝国进行侵略的日耳曼蛮族的战士文化。 古希腊是现代文明的源头，罗马人逐步建立起强大的帝国，连希腊和希腊所有的殖民地都在它的疆域范围之内。耶稣作为基督教的先知之一，却被犹太人和罗马人联合处死，无疑是个讽刺。日耳曼民族是为战争而生的，他们于公元四世纪彻底消灭了西罗马帝国（入侵方式也很特殊）。 三个元素是如何相互交融？ 罗马人要求：你必须对皇帝敬拜，因为罗马人相信，君主的地位与神明无异，但犹太人不肯对君王致敬，所以罗马人认为基督徒是颠覆分子，必须铲除而后快。但君士坦丁大帝（272—337），公元313年赋予基督教合法地位，事情就出现了转机。 这是三大元素的第一个连结：罗马帝国变成了基督教的天下。 后来，教会发展出完整的层级组织。这个教会有它自己的法律制度，也设有法庭、监狱以执行法律。而教会不只管教务，还管到其他重要大事，例如婚姻、继承。教会也有它自己的税收体系，因为所有人民都有义务掏钱来供养它。罗马帝国灭亡后，教会幸存下来——俨然一个独立政府。教皇和罗马帝王的角色平起平坐，治理麾下所有层级的文武百官。 这是三大元素的第二个连结：教会变成了罗马人的教会。 罗马帝国崩灭后，教会把希腊和罗马的学术保存了下来（它先前就已经这么做）。这是三大元素第三个连结：基督教会将希腊和罗马的智识成就保存下来。 日耳曼蛮族侵犯罗马帝国的时候，并没有摧毁它的意图。他们的目的在于攻城略地，想占夺最肥沃的土地以安家落户，好好享受人生的美好东西。而基督教的主教这样说：“河流那头的土地你们可以拿去，但其他的请留给我们。”主教又说只要接受基督教的上帝，就更能克敌制胜。这是一群很特别的征服者：他们接受了被征服者的宗教。 这是最后一个连结点：日耳曼蛮族支持基督教。
极简欧洲史读后感
关于古希腊文化的一些思考 读《极简欧洲史》有感 《极简欧洲史》将欧洲定义为一个“怪物”，一个包含并且能坚持强多元的文化混合体，全文反复阐释、证明着这一点。而这个多元的混合体，大致发轫于爱琴海沿岸的希腊雅典，文中第一章就如此说到。欧洲拥有1016万平方公里的土地，然而该书却仅以爱琴海沿岸地图为封面，这也能从侧面说明作者认为希腊思想指引了欧洲千年历史的奔流。 通览该书之后，我的心中也久久萦绕着这样一个想法，欧洲为何无可争议地一直走在世界前列；而为何弥漫上下5000年历史智慧光辉，经济文化发展同样繁茂的泱泱中华一直只得望其项背。其原因或许并不在基督教的控制蔓延，并不在无休止的战争及其带来的文化冲击，甚至也不在思想多元化。而在千百年来欧洲人民脑中无法磨灭的古希腊思想印记。 我认为，古希腊思想大概包括两个方面。 其一，古希腊思想是对民主的不屈坚守。这体现在很多方面，无论对于国王，还是教皇；无论面对暴君还是“第一公民”，王权始终受到较大的限制。无论是雅典民主，还是罗马共和，无论是君主立宪，还是“权利法案”也都体现出人民对民主的忠诚。“不是所有东西都是国王的”成为一种永恒的主流思想，相对应的，“私有财产不可侵犯”也是一种连统治阶级都认可或者必须认可的概念。 这种对封建体系的限制应该说对经济文化发展是非常非常重要的：物权私有为经济发展提供动力，而民主带来的民智则为文化的进步输送活跃的思想火花。 反观中国，自嬴政扫六合，称皇帝起，尽管此后天下分分合合，在或大或小或统一或分裂的国家领域内，王权始终是至高无上的。《诗经》中普遍流传的一句“普天之下，莫非王土；率土之滨,莫非王臣”可以说明这一点。共产主义革命之前的所有革命，仅仅是革除某人的天命，鼓吹缔造另一个人的天命而已，农民起义之后后继的是则是另一个拥有绝对统治力的君主，本质并没有任何改变。明代的中国，出现了纸币，出现了银行的雏形“钱庄”，甚至出现了资本主义的萌芽，但是也止于此，究其原因，就是无法确切保障物权私有。 并且，这样过度集权的封建体系下，民智确实很难有所发展有所作为。譬如有一句耳熟能详的十分接地气的俚语，“当官不为民做主，不如回家种红薯”，甚至到现在还偶尔在官民出现分歧时被引用。然而这却实实在在是非常十分可悲的，因为不应当是“当官为民做主”而应当是“当官为民办事”，为民做主，做主人的，只能是人民自己。华夏子孙已经习惯了把自己的命运寄托在统治阶级身上，而不是自己手中。在这样的情况下，中华不可能出现民主，“民智未开”也是必然的，进一步说，文化发展的脚步也必将受到桎梏。 其二，古希腊思想是对真理的不懈追求。这种追求涵盖政治制度，科技，哲学，宗教等各个方面，无所不包。苏格拉底的质疑一切，柏拉图的理想主义，亚里士多德的逻辑推导作为古希腊思想的杰出代表，已经深深烙印在一代又一代的欧洲人民心中，构成了他们思维和行动的纲领和指引。其结果是，欧洲人的思想无缰绳、亦无疆界。他们敢于揣摩一切可能性，而这样大胆闯荡又给他们的思维增添了更多可能性，这才是人类智慧的健康发展。 同样比照旧时代的中国。自汉武帝采纳董仲舒“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的建议，儒家思想就此成为中华唯一的正统，人民的思想创造都不能跳出儒家思想的范畴，否则就不可能得到统治阶级上层社会的认可，不可能实现彼时时代所定义的人生价值。儒家思想无疑是中华民族伟大的智慧结晶，它对中国乃至亚洲都产生了十分深远的影响，甚至到如今一些诸如管理学、经济学等新兴学科都能从中汲取到不一样的养分。然而，统治阶级手中的儒家思想客
《极简欧洲史》读后感《极简欧洲史》读书心得五篇
《极简欧洲史》读后感《极简欧洲史》读书心 得五篇 《极简欧洲史》是广西师范大学出版社出版的图书，作者是(澳)约翰·赫斯特。关于《极简欧洲史》读后感怎么写?下面是WTT给大家整理的《极简欧洲史》读后感范文，欢迎大家来参阅。 《极简欧洲史》读后感1 作为一名理科生，一直对历史不怎么感兴趣，但通过读《极简欧洲史》这本书，让我感觉历史还是蛮有意思。记得18年前第一次出国，到了英国、法国和德国三个国家，当时深受震撼，气势宏伟的教堂、成就非凡的大学、美轮美奂的艺术品、如诗如画的乡村都给我留下了深刻的印象，处处体现出欧洲厚重的历史和文明积淀。后来看《都铎王朝》《风中的女王》《权力的游戏》等电视剧，发现自己对于欧洲的历史知识储备太少了，欧洲为什么那么强大?欧洲为什么对世界的影响那么深远?通过读《极简欧洲史》这本书，你可以得到一些答案。 一、主要内容 全书分为上下两个部分。 第一部分只有两个章节，第一章是古典时期到中世纪的简史，主要讲述了欧洲文明的三个组成元素， 一是代表着科技和文化的古希腊罗马学术;
二是代表着政治和宗教的; 三是代表着军事武力和战士文化的日耳曼蛮族。 这三个元素相互影响，相互对立和强化，首先是公元313年，君士坦丁大帝公开表态支持会，罗马帝国变成的天下;其次是为了丰富和发展自己的教义，将古希腊和罗马的智力成果保存下来;再次是日耳曼蛮族入侵后，发现自己在科技、政治等方面落后太多，逐渐接受了文明，最终这三大元素形成了欧洲文明的内核。 第二章主要讲述了自公元1400年开始的近代欧洲史。 通过古典时期三大要素的融合，掌握着先进文明的成为真正的统领者，拥有了无比的权力和财富，但宗教的腐败也从很大程度上造就了黑暗的中世纪。进入近代欧洲，以文艺复兴、宗教改革、科学革命、启蒙运动、浪漫主义运动为代表，以各种方式消减了教会的权威，极大促进了科学的进步和发展，人们的思想和自由更加解放，也造就了更加灿烂的欧洲文明。 第二部分由六个章节组成，均是一些细节性的描述，从战争、民主、宗教和政治、语言、平民生活等角度对欧洲历史和文明进行了深入的剖析。 二、几点感受 (一)要重视内部控制 从单位管理的角度，内部控制主要有两大核心内容，一是相互监督和制约，二是具备完善的规章制度。从国家治理的角度
极简欧洲史读后感
极简欧洲史读后感 极简欧洲史读后感，欧洲的文明是怎么一步步走到今天的?下面是带来的极简欧洲史读后感，欢迎阅读! 极简欧洲史读后感【1】 澳大利亚人写的欧洲史，从文化的视角，把欧洲从古典时期到 中世纪的历史脉络说得很清楚。以前看过一本《中世纪欧洲史》(维姆·布洛克曼，彼得·霍彭布劳沃著)，跟这本一结合，算是把欧洲中世纪基本搞清楚了，在脑子里不再是一团浆糊。 欧洲文明形成的过程中，几个非常重要的元素：古希腊、古罗马、基督教、日尔曼蛮族。 古希腊：现代人很难想像，一个小小的古希腊，为什么能创造 出那么璀璨的文化。神话就不说了，各民族都有。古希腊在科学上，尤其是几何学上的研究，简直可以认为是外星人派给地球人的洋教练。古希腊人认为这个世界很简单，是可以用数学来精确的描述的，他们孜孜不倦的研究如何来描述这个世界。 古罗马：绵延一千多年的古罗马是欧洲文明的基石，征战和扩 张在当时是对各民族的蹂躏，在文明传播方面却是作用非常。罗马开创的共和、民主传统，是现代民主的滥觞，当威望如日中天的恺撒要独裁时，立即受到了暗杀，可见共和、民主在当时人们心中的位置有多么重要。既使屋大维加冕皇帝之后，依旧还是保持共和政体，皇帝不是子嗣继承，保证了皇帝的品种优良。回头看看中国历史上的帝王，什么傻子、婴儿、木匠、变态狂没有出现过?
基督教：自从耶稣把犹太教的道德教训变成宇宙大爱之后，就没有人能够挡住基督教的脚步了，直到今天，依然是世界第一宗教。基督教认为世界是邪恶的，只有耶稣才能拯救世界。罗马从军事上征服了犹太人，基督教从思想上征服了罗马，罗马与其说是罗马人的罗马，不如说是基督教的罗马。虽然历经马丁·路德的背后一刀，牛顿的当头一棒，以及达尔文的贴地一铲，连罗马都湮灭了，基督教依旧强盛。欧洲的文明有很多的分裂、撕扯、困惑，但整体上，却是一个完整的基督教文明。 日尔曼蛮族：日耳曼蛮族对罗马的入侵，铸就了今天欧洲国家版图的基本框架，也给欧洲人的血液里注入了好战、扩张的成分。作为落后民族，日尔曼入侵罗马的初衷只是想抢点东西，并不是要灭亡对方，并不是要建立统治。所以他们入侵后反而愿意接受罗马的统治(这算什么?)，甚至接受了基督教，自己变成了基督教骑士，成了罗马东征驱赶穆斯林的战士。 还有几点体会： 1.古希腊孕育的璀璨文明，和发源于意大利北部的文艺复兴，都是在城邦制的基础上发展起来的。也就是说，是在国家极度分裂和不稳定的情况下发展起来的。反观中国历史，春秋战国和民国时期，也是思想最奔放的时期，这个决不是巧合。 2.法国的农民自己拥有土地(其实是小地主)，所以法国农民在政治上有力量，但在经济上却没法跟租地的英国农民相比。反观国内，
《十一种孤独》 读后感
《十一种孤独》读后感 思行 | 遇见波兰：一个最接近幸福的国度 亲爱的奶奶 编者按 行在波兰，逐渐发现，波兰人并没有被互联网绑架了自我和家庭生活，连加班费也不稀罕、每天陪伴爱人儿女的欢笑和周末的family day，既源自于波兰人对历史的包容和对未来的豁达理念，也是值得我们羡慕和学习的生活节奏，又或许是最接近我们对幸福的期待模式。今天就跟你分享一下我们对波兰本地特色的感受。 不知你是否还记得有一篇流传甚广的文章《当下中国的十二种孤独》，讲的就是现代社会人们被互联网绑架后，相对而坐却相距万里的孤独。之前有一本著名的美国小说《十一种孤独》，讲述的是20世纪五六十年代经济复苏而人们却缺乏安全感的纽约故事。可悲的是，我们似乎正在用行动悦纳我们当初讨厌甚至恐惧的生活方式。 行在波兰，我们逐渐发现，波兰人并没有被互联网绑架了自我和家庭生活，连加班费也不稀罕、每天陪伴爱人儿女的欢笑和周末的family day，既源自于波兰人对历史的包容和对未来的豁达理念，也是值得我们羡慕和学习的生活节奏，又或许是最接近我们对幸福的期待模式。说到这里，我也挺惭愧的，打着忙碌的名义，盯着屏幕，错过了多少精彩的对白。 ▲《十一种孤独》
此行来同方威视波兰华沙公司实践，得益于欧美文化中work-family balance的文化，这边早上8点上班，下午4点下班，相对于早上4点天亮，晚上9点天黑的漫长白昼，仍然有很多自我探索与思考的时间，比如这两周我在业余时间坚持了每天跑5-10公里，并陆续读完了阿城《孩子王》《树王》《棋王》，刘震云《塔铺》，赫胥黎《美丽新世界》，贾平凹《废都》，哈夫纳《解读希特勒》和约翰《你一定爱读的极简欧洲史》这些作品，可谓是大饱口福了。 在这里，没有诸多你来我往的约饭，也有更多属于自己的时间。跑步、与队友步行上下班、下班后一起去刨食儿的路上浪费一些时间在商场和公园里，浪费在宾馆的阅读时光中，两周下来，文化感受力有了明显的提升，人也不那么浮躁了，所以也才有心情每天都坐下来花一点时间回味一整天的生活，并记录一点东西，与诸君分享。 凤凰涅槃之城厚重的家庭意识 对于波兰人而言，家庭是他们生活中不可缺少的一个组织形态。在这个全民信奉天主教的国度里，一夫一妻以及孩子是波兰人民生活的精神归宿和动力源泉。与美国大片里面宣扬的个人英雄主义大相径庭的是，波兰人一定程度上会将家庭放在工作之前。 在咱们华沙公司，很难要求一个本地员工出差超过一周以上，其中最重要的原因就是他们离不开家庭，因此，出差事务往往由几个人接力完成。同方威视波兰华沙公司杨总如是说到。因为公司外派中国员工来到波兰往往是好几个月，
历史学专业出国读研可以选择哪些学校.doc
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考试成绩、完整的申请表格、个人简历、个人申请陈述、三封推荐信、本科成绩单、毕业证书和学位证书。历史学系还要求申请者提交一篇不限篇幅的写作范例，可选与历史学相关的任意主题。历史学系申请书最终截止日期是12月15日，申请费为75美元。 3、密歇根大学安娜堡分校 University if Michigan-Ann Arbor 密歇根大学安娜堡分校历史学系是美国历史学专业前十名中规模最大的系科，目前拥有全职教授近120人，研究领域包括欧洲史、美国史、中东史和拉 美史等多个方向。凭借强大的学术研究与授课能力，历史学系目前除授予历史学博士外，还设有希腊与罗马史、历史与妇女研究、人类学与历史三个联合博士学位。 国际学生申请密歇根大学安娜堡分校历史学系研究生项目需要提交：TOEFL和GRE考试成绩、完整的申请表格、个人简历、个人申请陈述、三封推 荐信、本科成绩单、毕业证书和学位证书。历史学系还要求申请者提交一篇不超过35页的写作范例，可选与历史学相关的任意主题、历史学系申请的最终截止日期 是12月1日，申请费为75美元。 4、哥伦比亚大学 Columbia University 哥伦比亚大学历史学系目前拥有全职教授50余人，主要研究方向集中于国际史、美国史、西方思想史、犹太史和妇女史。系内在读研究生200多人， 教学和科研实力雄厚。与前十名学校中的大多数历史学系不同，哥伦比亚大学历史学系虽然不招收仅攻读税收学位的全日制新生，但每年都会招收1～2名新生攻读 业余制的硕士学位(part-time Master’s program)。