英语专业语用学期末考试复习整理汇总.doc

Chapter 2

1.Deictic expression/ indexical : deixis is a technical term for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means "pointing" via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing" is called a deictic expression. For exampl e, when you notice a strange object and ask, "What's that?二you are using a deictic expression "that " to indicate something in the immediate context.

2.Person deixis: forms used to indicate some people, eg, me you.

3.Spatial deixis: forms used to point to location, eg. Here there.

4.Temporal deixis: forms used to point to location in time, eg, now then.

5.Proximal terms: indicate near speaker, this here now. For example, "now” is generally understood as referring to some point or period in time that has the time of the speaker's utterance at its center.

6.Distal terms: indicate away from speaker, that there then.

7.Deictic center: the speaker's location/ time.

& Honorifics: expressions which indicate higher status.

9.T/V distinction: the distinction between forms used for a familiar versus a non-familiar addressee in some languages. For example, tu familiar vous non-familiar.

10.Deictic projection: speakers acting as if they are somewhere else. Fro example, speakers may project themselves into other locations prior to actually being in those locations, as when they say^I will come later/'

11.Psychological distance: speaker's marking of how close or distant something is perceived to be. For example, a speaker may wish to mark something that is physically close (for example, a per fume being sniffed by the speaker) as psychologically distant “I don^t like thaf\

Chapter 4

L Presupposition：a presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions. For example, in producing the utterance "Mary5s brother bought three horses：, the speaker will normally be expected to have the presuppositions that a person called Mary exists and that she has a brothe匚

2.Entailment: an entailment is something that logically follows form what is asserted in the utterance. Sentences, not speakers, have entailments. For example, the sentence "Maryas brother bought three horses^ will be treated as having the entailments that Maryas brother bought something, bought three animals, bought two horses, bought one horse, and many other similar logical consequences.

3.Constancy under negation: it means that the presupposition of a sentence will remain constant even when that statement is negated. For example, when "Everybody knows that John is gay，，is negated as in "Everybody doesn't know that John is gay”, the presupposition that "John is gay "is still true.

4.Potential presupposition: an assumption typically associated with use of a linguistic form, eg. The use of the verb "regret" in "He regrets doing that" carries an assumption that he actually “did that,

5.Existential presupposition: an assumption that someone or something, identified by

use of a noun phrase, does exist. For example, the noun phrase "your car55 assumes the presupposition that “you have a car".

6.Factive presupposition: the assumption that information stated after certain words, eg, "know" "regref\ is true. For example, the utterance that 'Tm glad that it，s over^ assumes the truth that “It，s ovef\

7.Lexical presupposition: the assumption that, in using one word, the speaker can act as if another meaning will be understood. For example, each time you say that someone "managed^ to do something, the asserted meaning is that the person succeeded in some way.

& Structural presupposition: the assumption that part of a structure contained information being treated as already known. For example, the wh-question construction like “when did he leave?'； is interpreted with the presupposition that the information after the wh-form, "he left，： is already known to be the case.

9.Non-factive presupposition: the assumption that certain information, like that associated with verbs "drearrT, "imagine^and "pretend^, is not true. For example, when you say^I dreamed that I was rich： the presupposition is that what follows the word "dreamed^ is not true. That is “I was not rich：

10.Counter-factive presupposition: the assumption that certain information is the opposite of true. For example, a conditional clause like "If I had a car59 presents the truth that I dorf t have a car.

11.Projection problem: the meaning of some presuppositions (as parts) doesn^t survive to become the meaning of some complex sentences (as wholes). For example, the presupposition "Kelly was ilF is assumed to be true in the simple structure “No body realized that Kelly was ilF\ But it is not true in the complex structure that “I imagined that Kelly was ill and nobody realized that she was ilF\

12.Background entailments: all logical consequence of an utterance? For example, the background entailments of "Rover chased three dogs” can be "something chased three dogs，；"Rover did something to three dogs'：or "Rover chased three of something^ and so on.

13.Foreground entailment: the main logical consequence of an utterance. For example, when Rover is the foc us of the utterance "Rover chased three dogs”，the main assumption is that something chased three dogs.

Chapter 5

1.Tautology: an apparently meaningless expression in which one word is defined as itself, eg. Business is business.

2.Implicature/ Conversational implicature: an additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the cooperative principle, eg. If someone says “The President is a mouse ”，something that is literally false, the hearer must assume the speaker means to convey more than is being said.

3.Cooperative principle: a basic assumption in conversation that each participant will attempt to contribute appropriately, at the required time, to the cuirent exchange of talk.

Four sub-principles of the cooperative principle are called maxims:

Quantity

(1)make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).

(2)do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

Quality

Try to make your contribution one that is true.

(1)do not say what you believe to be false.

(2)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

Relation

Be relevant

Manner

Be perspicuous.

(1)avoid obscurity of expression.

(2)Avoid ambiguity.

(3)Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).

(4)Be orderly.

4.Hedges

Certain kinds of expressions speakers use to mark that they may be in danger of not fully adhering to the principles.

Show speakers be cautious of the ...maxim

Quality: as far as I know I may be mistaken Fm not sure I guess

Quantity: as you probably know to cut a long story short I won't bore you with all the details

Relation: I doift know if this is important, but this may sound like a dumb question, but Manner: this may be a bit confused, but Vm not sure if this makes sense I don^t know if this is clear at all.

5.Generalized conversational implicature: an additional unstated meaning that does not depend on special or local knowledge. For example, phrases like a/an X are typically interpreted according to the generalized conversational implicature that: an X +> not speaker^ X

6.Scalar implicature: an additional meaning of the negative of any value higher on the scale than the one uttered, e.g. In saying "some children"，I create an implicature that what I say does not apply to "all children^.

7.Particularized conversational implicature: an additional unstated meaning that depends on special or local knowledge. For example, here is a dialogue. Rick: Hey, coming to the wild party tonight ? Tom: My parents are visiting. In order to make Tom's response relevant, Rick has to draw on some assumed knowledge that one college student in this setting expects another to have. Tom will be spending that evening with his parents, and time spent with parents is quiet (consequently +> Tom not at party). 8.Conventional implicature: as additional unstated meaning associated with the use of a specific word, e.g. “A but implies a contrast between A and B，so "contrast^ is a conventional implicature of “but：

Chapter 6

1.Speech act: an action performed by the use of an utterance to communicate, such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request.

2.Speech event: a set of circumstances in which people interact in some conventional way to arnve at some outcome.

3- On any occasion, the action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts.

Locutionary act: the basic act of utterance or producing a meaningful linguistic expression. If you have difficulty with actually forming the sounds and words to create a meaningful utterance in a language(for example,because iVs foreign or you are tongue-tied )，you might fail to produce a locutionary act.

Illocutionary act/ force: the communicative force of an utterance. For example, we might utter 'Tve just made some coffee.^ to make a statement, an offer, an explanation or for some other communicative purpose.

Perlocutionary act/ effect: the effect of an utterance used to perform a speech act. For example, you will utter “I have just made some coffee” on the assumption that the hearer will recognize the effect you intended (for example, to account for a wonderful smell, or to get the hearer to drink some coffee).

4.IFIDs illocutionary force indicating device: indication in the speaker^ utterance of the communicative force of that utterance. It is an expression where there is a slot for a performative verb that explicitly names the illocutionary act being performed. Like I promise you that I will see you later. Other IFIDs which can be identified are word order, stress and intonation.

5.Performative verb: a verb that explicitly names the speech act, e.g. The verb “promise" in the utterance "I promise to be there"\

6.Felicity conditions: the appropriate conditions for a speech act to be recognized as intended. For some clear cases, the performance will be infelicitous if the speaker is not a specific person in a special context. General conditions: preconditions on performing a speech act. For example, participants can understand the language being used and that they are not play-acting or being nonsensical. Content conditions: in order to count as a particular type of speech act, an utterance must contain certain features, e.g. A promise must be a future event. Preparatory conditions: specific requirements prior to an utterance in order for it to count as a particular speech act. For example, when I promise to do something, there are two preparatory conditions: the event will not happen by itself; the event will have a beneficial effect. Sincerity conditions: requirements on the genuine intentions of a speaker in order for an utterance to count as a particular speech act. For example, for a promise, the speaker genuinely intends to carry out the future action. Essential condition: in performing a speech act, a requirement that the utterance commits the speaker to the act performed. For example, by the act of uttering a promise,

I thereby intend to create an obligation to carry out the action as promised.

7.Performative hypothesis: a proposal that, underlying every utterance, there is a clause with a verb that identifies the speech act. The basic format is I (hereby) Vp you (that) U

Explicit performative: a speech act containing a performative verb.I hereby order

you that you clean up this mess.

Implicit performative: a speech act without a performative verb. Clean up this mess!

8.Speech act classification

One general classification system lists five types of general functions performed by speech acts: declarations, representatives, expressives, directives, and commissives. Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance.

E.g. A judge pronouncing a sentence.

Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not, like assertions, conclusions, and descriptions. The speaker makes words fit the world of belief. For example, the earth is flat.

Expresssives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels, like statements of pleasurejikes, painjoy and so on. The speaker makes words fit the world of feeling. For example, Fm really sorry!

Directives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to do something, like commands, requests, orders, suggestions and so on. The speaker attempts to make the world fit the words via the hearer. For example, gimme a cup of coffee.

Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action, like promises, threats, refusals and so on. The speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words via the speaker.

9.Direct speech act: speech act where a direct relationship exists between the structure and communicative function of an utterance, e.g. Using an interrogative form (can you....?) to ask a question.

10.Indirect speech act: speech act where an indirect relationship exists between the structure and communicative function of an utterance, e.g. The use of an interrogative (can you...?) not to ask a question, but to make a request (can you help me with this?) Chapter 7

1.Face means the public self-image of a person. It refers to that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize.

2.Politeness in an interaction, can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person，s face.

3.Face wants: a person's expectations that their public self-image will be respected.

4.FTA/Face threatening acts: utterance or action which threatens a person's public self-image.

5.Face saving act: utterance or action which avoids a potential threat to a personas public self-image. For example, Fm going to tell him to stop that awful noise right now! Perhaps you could just ask him if he is going to stop soon because it is getting a bit late and people need to get to sleep.

6.Negative face is the need to be independent, to have freedom of action, and not to be imposed on by others.

7.Positive face is the need to be accepted, even liked, by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that his or her wants are shared by others.

8.Negative politeness: a face saving act which is oriented to the personas negative face will tend to show deference, emphasize the importance of the other9s time or concerns.

9.Positive politeness: a face saving act which is concerned with the person's positive face will tend to show solidarity, emphasize that both speakers want the same thing, and that they have a common goal.

10?Off record: utterances not directly addressed to another.

11.On record: utterances directly addressed to another.

12.Bald on record: utterances, e.g. Orders, directly addressed to another where the illocutionary force is made explicit. For example, lend me your pen.

13.Mitigating devices is expressions used to soften an imposition, eg please, would you.

14.A positive politeness strategy leads the requester to appeal to a common goal, and even friendship, via expressions like “How about letting me use your pen?”

15.A negative politeness strategy is an attempt to demonstrate awareness of another's rights not to be imposed on. Like could you lend me a pen?

16?Solidarity strategy is the tendency to use positive politeness forms, emphasizing closeness between speaker and heare匸Eg. Come on, let's go to the party. Everyone will be there? We will have fun.

17.Deference strategy is the tendency to use negative politeness forms, emphasizing the hearer5s right to freedom. Eg. There^s going to be a party, if you can make it, it will be fun.

18.Pre-sequences

One way of avoiding risk of threatening others' face is to provide an opportunity for the other to halt the potentially risky act.

Pre-request: utterance before a request to check if a request can be made. Eg. Are you busy? Not really. Check over this memo. Okay.

Pre-invitation: utterance before an invitation to check if an invitation can be made. Eg. Are you doing anything later? Oh, yeah, busy busy. Oh, okay.

Pre-arniouncement: utterance before an announcement to check if an announcement can be made. Eg. Mom, guess what happened? Silence. Mom, you know what? Not right now, Jacy, Fm busy.(stop).

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Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学 知识点： 1.*Definition: pragmatics; context 2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning 3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory 4.Searle’s classification of speech acts 5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle 考核目标： 识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context 领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts 综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle 一、定义 1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。) 2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。 二、知识点 6.1.2 pragmatics vs. semantics语用学与语义学 二十世纪初，Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics 一书的出版标志着现代语言学研究的开始，同时也为现代语言学奠定了基础调，即语言应该作为一个独立的，内在的系统来加以研究。 语用学和语义学既有相关性又有相异性。两者都是对意义的研究。传统语义学把语义看成是抽象的，内在的，是语言本身的特性，不受语境的影响。因此传统语义学只研究语义的内在特征，不把语义研究置于语境中来考察。语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述，因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。 Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.

高级英语6 Paraphase-期末考试 复习答案

Unit 2 The Fine Art of Putting Things Off Michael Demarest 1"Never put off till tomorrow," exhorted Lord Chesterfield in 1749, "what you can do today." That the elegant earl never got around to marrying his son's mother and had a bad habit of keeping worthies like Dr. Johnson cooling their heels for hours in an anteroom attests to the fact that even the most well-intentioned men have been postponers ever. Quintus Fabius Maximus, one of the great Roman generals, was dubbed "Cunctator " (Delayer) for putting off battle until the last possible vinum break. Moses pleaded a speech defect to rationalize his reluctance to deliver Jehovah's edicts to Pharaoh. Hamlet, of course, raised procrastination to an art form. 2The world is probably about evenly divided between delayers and do-it-nowers. There are those who prepare their income taxes in February, prepay mortgages and serve precisely planned dinners at an ungodly 6:30 . The other half dine happily on leftovers at 9 or 10, misplace bills and file for an extension of the income tax deadline. They seldom pay credit-card bills until the apocalyptic voice of Diners threatens doom from Denver. They postpone, as Faustian encounters, visits to barbershop, dentist or doctor. 3Yet for all the trouble procrastination may incur, delay can often inspire and revive a creative soul. Jean Kerr, author of many successful novels and plays, says that she reads every soup-can and jamjar label in her kitchen before settling down to her typewriter. Many a writer focuses on almost anything but his task—for example, on the Coast and Geodetic Survey of Maine's Frenchman Bay and Bar Harbor, stimulating his imagination with names like Googins Ledge, Blunts Pond, Hio Hill and Burnt Porcupine, Long Porcupine, Sheep Porcupine and Bald Porcupine islands. 4From Cunctator's day until this century, the art of postponement had been virtually a monopoly of the military ("Hurry up and wait"), diplomacy and the law. In former times, a British proconsul faced with a native uprising could comfortably ruminate about the situation with Singapore Sling in hand. Blessedly, he had no nattering Telex to order in machine guns and fresh troops. A U.S. general as late as World War II could agree with his enemy counterpart to take a sporting day off, loot the villagers' chickens and wine and go back to battle a day later. Lawyers are among the world's most addicted postponers. According to Frank Nathan, a nonpost-poning Beverly Hills insurance salesman, "The number of attorneys who die without a will is amazing." 5Even where there is no will, there is a way. There is a difference, of course, between chronic procrastination and purposeful postponement, particularly in the higher echelons of business. Corporate dynamics encourage the caution that breeds delay, says Richard Manderbach, Bank of America group vice president. He notes that speedy action can be embarrassing or extremely costly. The data explosion fortifies those seeking excuses for inaction—another report to be read, another authority to be consulted. "There is always," says Manderbach, "a delicate edge between having enough information and too much." 6His point is well taken. Bureaucratization, which flourished amid the growing burdens of government and the greater complexity of society, was designed to smother policymakers in blankets of legalism, compromise and reappraisal—and thereby prevent hasty decisions from being made. The centralization of government that led to Watergate has spread to economic institutions and beyond, making procrastination a worldwide way of life. Many languages are studded with phrases that refer to putting things off—from the Spanish ma?ana to the Arabic bukra fil mishmish(literally "tomorrow in apricots," more loosely "leave it for the soft spring weather when the apricots are blooming"). 7Academe also takes high honors in procrastination. Bernard Sklar, a University of Southern California sociologist who churns out three to five pages of writing a day, admits that "many of my friends go through agonies when they face a blank page. There are all sorts of rationalizations: the pressure of teaching, responsibilities at home, checking out the latest book, looking up another footnote." 8Psychologists maintain that the most assiduous procrastinators are women, though many psychologists are (at $50-plus an hour) pretty good delayers themselves. Dr. Ralph Greenson, a professor of clinical psychiatry (and Marilyn Monroe's onetime shrink), takes a fairly gentle view of procrastination. "To many people," he says, "doing something, confronting, is the moment of truth. All frightened people will then avoid the moment of truth entirely, or evade or postpone it until the last possible moment." To Georgia State Psychologist Joen Pagan, however, procrastination may be a kind of subliminal way of sorting the important from the trivial. "When I drag my feet, there's usually some reason," says Fagan. "I feel it, but I don't yet know the real reason." 9In fact, there is a long and honorable history of procrastination to suggest that many ideas and decisions may well improve if postponed. It is something of a truism that to put off making a decision is itself a