语言学 考研真题

语言学考研真题和答案

第一章语言学

Fill in the blanks

1. Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the _______it is associated with. （人大2007研）

meaning 语言有任意性，其所指与形式没有逻辑或内在联系2. Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as _______. （北二外2003研）displacement 移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点

3. By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the _______ level are composed of elements of the __________ level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. （北二外2006研）

primary, secondary 双重性指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层

结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则

4. The features that define our human languages can be called _______ features. （北二外2006）

design人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。

5. The term ________ originates from Malinowski's study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language. （中山大学2006研）phatic communication寒暄功能有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，最先由Malinowski提出

6. Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ________, in-terpersonal and textual functions. （中山大学2008研）

ideational 韩礼德将儿童的语言功能范围逐渐缩小，简化成为一套高度符号

化和抽象化的功能：概念、人际、语篇功能。

7. Our language can be used to talk about itself. This is the ________ function of language. （中山大学2005研）metalingual语言的元语言功能是指语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

8. Linguistics is usually defined as the _______ study of language. （北二外2003研）scientific

9. ________ studies how the speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received, and _______ studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. （人大2006研）

phonetics, phonology语音学研究语音是如何产生，传播以及接收的；音

系学研究支配语音分布和排列的规则以及音节的形式。

10. _______studies meaning in language, _______is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences, and ________ is concerned with the internal organization of words. They are all among the main branches of linguistics. （人大2006研）

semantics, syntax, morphology语义学研究语言的意义，句法学研究构

成句子的规则，形态学研究词汇的内部结构。三者都是语言学的分支。

11. In Saussure's view, the relationship between signifier (sound image) and signified (concept) is_______. （北二外2003）arbitrary索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系。

12. ________ is the study of the language-processing mechanisms. It is concerned with the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language; ________ on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. They both belong to branches of macrolinguistics. （人大2006研）

psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics心理语言学研究语言处理机制，如语言的记

忆、理解、习得等。社会语言学研究语言与社会之间的关系。

13. Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as ________ and ________. The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing. （人大2006研）

langue, parole索绪尔用语言和言语来区分说话者的语言能力和言语上(表达

的)的实际表现或语料。

14. ________ grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while ________ grammars tell people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described. （人大2006研）

descriptive, prescriptive 描述性语言记录语言共同体的成员所遵循的规则，规

定式的语言学目的在于为正确使用语言定下各种规则。

15. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ________ and performance. （人大2006）

competence 语言能力指理想的语言使用者关于语言规则的语言知识，语言应

用指语言交际中关于语言规则知识的实际使用。

16. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the ________ theory. yo-he-ho 语言的起源有“汪汪”理论，“噗噗”理论和“哟嘿吼”理论o“哟嘿吼”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。

17. The description of a language as it changes through time is a ________ study.

Diachronic linguistic 历时语言学家集中研究几十年或几百年的时期内两个或

比两个更多的语言状况的差异。

18. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure's langue and Chomsky's ________.

Competence 索绪尔的语言与乔姆斯基的语言能力相似，因为二者都指抽象的语

言知识，不是实际使用中的语言

Multiple Choices

1. Which of the following statement is NOT true? （大连外院2008研） B

A. Language is a means of vocal communication.

B. Language is instrumental.

C. Language is social and conventional.

2. Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature? （大连外院2008研） B

A. Arbitrariness

B. Convention

C. Duality

3. By _______we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. （西安外院2006研）

A. arbitrariness

B. duality

C. creativity

D. displacement

C 创造性指语言的能产性，能早出和理解无穷的长句，其中大半是从未听说过的

4. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? （西安交大2008研） A

A. tree

B. crash

C. typewriter

D. bang

Crash是个缩略语，typewriter是复合词，bang是拟声词，

5. The functions of language do NOT include ________. （大连外院2008研） C

A. informative function

B. interpersonal function

C. metacognitive function 语言的主要功能是寒暄功能、指示功能、信息功能、疑问功

能、表达功能、施为功能和劝说功能

6. The most important sociological use of language is the _______ function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. （西安外院2006研） B

A. performative

B. interpersonal

C. phatic

D. metalingual

7. Saussure took a (n) ________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a

______point of view. （西安交大2008研） A

A. sociological. . . psychological

B. psychological. . . sociological

C. applied. . . pragmatic

D. semantic. . . linguistic

索绪尔的语言指语言社团中的语言，所以是从社会的角度研究语言。

乔姆斯基是从使用者本身掌握的语言知识研究语言，是从心理角度研究语言。

8. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the

members of a speech community. （西安交大2008研） C

A. parole

B. performance

C. langue

D. Language

9. The study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech is closely connected with

______. （大连外院2008研） B 声学语音学研究语音的物质特质

A. articulatory phonetics

B. acoustic phonetics

C. auditory phonetics

10. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?

—A nice day, isn't it?

—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. B 寒暄功能

A. Emotive.

B. Phatic.

C. Performative.

D. Interpersonal.

11. ________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education. C

A. Linguistic geography

B. Sociolinguistics

C. Applied linguistics

D. Comparative linguistics

12. Verbal dueling, the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, is mainly to do with the _______, function of language. （武汉大学2011研） D 为了开心好玩，所以选娱乐功能

A. performative

B. interpersonal

C. informative

D. recreational

True or False

1. The phatic function refers to language function for establishing or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. （清华2011研）T寒暄功能是指建立与保持社交联络而不是交换信息

2. Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language. （大连外院2008研）T

3. ―Competence‖ and ―performance‖are two distinctive terms proposed by Saussure. （北二外2005研）F 是乔姆斯基提出的

4. The concept competence originally refers to the grammatical knowledge of the ideal language user and has nothing to do with the actual use of language in concrete situation. （南开2004研）T

5. Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to

speak correct language. F 这是两种不同的方法，不能淡出说谁好谁坏

6. By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language. T

7. Onomatopoeic words are totally arbitrary. F 拟声词不是完全任意的

Explain the Following Terms

1. arbitrariness （四川大学2006研）

2. duality （四川大学2006研）

3. displacement （南开2010研，清华2001研）

4. performative function （武汉大学2004研）

5. parole （北师大2004研）

6. descriptive study of linguistics （四川大学2007研）

7. langue （北外2010研）

1. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs be no natural relationship to their meaning. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative; a conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. For example, it is unable to explain why

a book is called a /buk/ and a pen a /pen/.

2. Duality refers to the fact that in all languages so far investigated there are two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc. ) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. For example, a syllable is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself, and scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes.

3. Language can be used to refer to what is present, what is absent, what happens at present, what happened in the past, what will happen in the future or what happens in a far-away place. This property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place. For example, scientists can predict the "future" of certain planets that are several billions of light years away from us.

4. The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons and it can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every day be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.

5. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It varies enormously according to individu-als. The speeches, the idiosyncratic utterances made by individuals are all examples of parole.

6. To say that linguistics is a descriptive study is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the roles to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.

7. Langue refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realization of langue.

Short Answer Questions

1. Cite an example to explain synchronic linguistics. （人大2005研）

2. How well, in your opinion, does the word ―communication‖represent the function of human language? （北二外2008研）

3. What are linguistic competence and communicative competence? （武汉大学2007研）

4. One of the design features of human language is creativity. What is it? And what makes it possi-ble? （浙江大学2007研）

5. What is the directive function? （西安交大2008研）

第一章简答答案

1. Synchronic Linguistics is the description of a language at some point of time in history. It focuses on the characteristics of the language at a certain time. For example, when we study English, we learn about the vocabulary, the language points and oral English etc. At this time, we are learning English of current time in synchronic method.

2. We use language for an almost infinite number of purposes, from writing letters to gossiping with our friends, making speeches and talking to ourselves in the mirror. But the primary function of language of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. The term ―communication‖can be used to cover much of the function of language. This function can be further divided into more specific functions, such as phatic function/communion, directive function, informative function, interrogative function, expressive function, evocative function, performative function etc.

3. Linguistic competence was originally proposed by Noam Chomsky. It is defined as a language user's underlying knowledge about the system or rules. In Chomsky's view, the native speaker's competence can be characterized as a set of rules for producing an understanding of sentences in his language. To acquire the native speaker's competence is to obtain the ability of recognizing and producing grammatical sentences in a language.

Communicative competence, on the other hand, was proposed by Dell Hymes as an effort to refine the original notion by Chomsky. He pointed out that Chomsky's competence is necessary but not sufficient for a learner to communicate with others successfully in a speech community. In addition to grammatical accuracy, a successful communication requires appropriacy in the sense that he knows when he speaks what to whom. Thus he extended the notion of competence by incorporating the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence is called communicative competence.

4. The creativity of language means that users can understand and produce sentences they have nev-er heard before. Creativity is a property unique to human language. It combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never heard before. Human language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. The speaker is able to understand the sentences before produced or heard. The fact that human language is recursive could be shown in that words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that word before. For example, I could make a sentence like ―The man who is waiting for the lady who is talking to the boy who is playing with a girl, is my uncle.‖

5. Directive function is one of functions of language. Language is used to get the hearer to do some-thing. Most imperative sentences are of this function. For example, the sentence ―Close your book and listen to me carefully!‖ performs a directive function. Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle's ―Indirect speech act theory‖ at least, serves the purpose of direction too, e. g. , ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖Essay Questions

1. Linguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Other disciplines such as sociology, psychology, ethnography are also preoccupied with language. （中山2008研）

本题答案：Since language has both individual and social aspects, it is naturally of interest to psychologists and sociologists among others.

Many psychologists are interested to investigate the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example, language develop-ment in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition; biological foundations of language , and a big topic—the relationship between language and cognition, so there are psycholinguistics.

Socialists who are interested in the relations between language and society do researches concerned both sociology and linguistics, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.

When anthropologists enlisted the help of linguists to study unwritten languages, anthropology and linguistics became closely associated in the early days of anthropological fieldwork. In contrast with other linguists, anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and striK lure of formerly unwritten languages. They are concerned with the emergence of language and also with the divergence of languages over thousands of years.

Therefore, it is not surprising there are some branches of macrolinguistics that show an inter-disciplinary nature.

2. There are two kinds of grammar based on different linguistic points of view. They are prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar. A grammar may describe how language is actually spoken and/or written, and may not state or postulate how it ought to be spoken or written. But a grammar may also state the rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. Which grammar is descriptive grammar, and which grammar is prescriptive grammar? Cite some examples to give your reasons. （北师大2003 研）

本题答案：The first one is typical of descriptive grammar, while the second one is prescriptive grammar. The descriptive grammar aims to describe how people speak and detail the underlying knowledge. It is believed in descriptive grammar that whatever occurs in natural speech, such as hesitation, incomplete utterance, should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, or corrupt; modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. Whereas, the prescriptive approach aims to teach people how to speak, read, and write a particular language; in the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively.

For example, the statement that “in standard English, a double negative is rarely used”is a description, showing how the language is used in standard English, regardless whether it is correct or not. “You should never use a double-negative”is a typical grammar rule that prescribes what

should be grammatically correct in the Standard English. As for the spelling, prescription says “judgment”is correct, but description accurately points out that “judgment”is considered by Edited English to be correct too, and a descriptive account for these two different spellings will show how the later one is used and who uses it.

3. Saussure puts forward the concept of langue and parole, and Chomsky puts forward the concept of competence and performance. Please dwell upon the differences and similarities, if any, of the two pairs: langue and parole vs. competence and performance. （北京交通大学2007研）

本题答案：According to F. de Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community; while parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

For Chomsky, a fundamental distinction between linguistic competence and performance should be made. A language user‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called lin-guistic competence. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations. In light with this, competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‘s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, and thus would involve imperfections such as slips of tongue, false starts, unnecessary pauses, and so on. Thus, the point is that a speaker‘s performance does not always match his competence.

Saussure‘s distinction i s somewhat similar with Chomsky‘s in the sense that they both refer to the constant factor which underlies the utterances that constitute parole/performance. However, their difference is quite obvious. Saussue‘s language is a social product, a set of conventions for a speech community. Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussrue looks at language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky looks at it more from a psychological point of view.

4. Examine the following two statements about language, and discuss the similarities and differences between them. Do you agree with the two statements? Explain your answer.

(1) Sapir (1921: Language); ―Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.‖

(2) Bloch and Trager (1942: Outline of Linguistic Analysis) : ―A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.‖

本题答案：Similarities:

(1) Both definitions stick to the fact that language is primarily a matter of speech because the

primary medium of language is sound. Sapir illustrates this idea by implying that the produced symbols are auditory and Bloch and Trager by explicitly using the word ?vocal‘.

(2) Both definitions allude to the fact that the association between the words and the things that

they denoted is rarely inherent, Sapir by using the word ?symbols‘and Bloch and Trager by placing emphasis on ?arbitrary‘ and ?symbols‘ .

Differences:

(1) Sapir‘s definition emphasize that language relates to communication between human beings.

It is very different from the communication systems of other creatures, such as bird songs and bee dances. Bloch and Trager do not clearly indicate this property, only saying that it is possessed by a social group.

(2) Sapir also considers that language is ?non-instinctive‘ and ?voluntarily produced‘. Thus for

him language does not include such instinctive forms of communication as smiling and cries of pain, etc. However, Bloch and Tra ger‘s definition do not include this feature.

(3) The element ?system‘ in Bloch and Trager‘s definition reflects the fact that language pro

vides us with the framework for generating appropriate utterances rather than providing us with an infinite store of ready-made utterances. Still elements of lacunae are combined ac-cording to rules.

(4) The function of language is indicated differently in two definitions. Sapir sees language as

for communicating ideas, emotions and desires, while Bloch and Trager considers it for a social group's co-operation. Sapir‘s definition proposes ?communication‘as the principal function of language and specifies what is communicated; Bloch and Trager only vaguely points out that language can be used for co-operation.

Each of the two definitions has its own special emphasis and it not totally free from lim-itations. We think the two definitions grasp some defining properties of language that distin-guish it from any animal system of communication, for example, ?vocal‘ , ?arbitrary‘, ?symbol‘, ?purely human‘, ?a system‘. But either has some limitation. As for Sapir‘s definition, whether one considers language to be instinctive or not is an issue. Language is instinctive in so far as we are all born with a predisposition to speak, we all acquire a language without tuition and when we speak we do not consciously convert our thoughts into speech. Language is, however, non-instinctive in that we can choose what to say or whether to say anything at all. Both the definition's description of language's function is not precise. Sapir‘s definition confines language only to communicating ideas, emotions and desires, and Bloch and Trager‘s definition does not point it out at all.

5. It is widely known that animals have their own ways of communicating with each other. For example, bees can dance very complicated dances and some birds can sing very complicated songs. It is also generally agreed that there are fundamental differences between human language and other animals' ways of communicating.

i. What is your view on this point?

ii. If you also think that there are fundamental differences between human language and other animals' ways of communicating, according to you, what are the differences? Please give short explanations. If you don't think that there are fundamental differences between human language and other animals‘ways of communicating, please also defend your position. Illustrate your points with examples if necessary.

本题答案：

i. There‘re fundamental differences between human language and other animal‘s ways of

communicating. All creatures, not only the ―clever‖ ones like apes and dolphins but also such ―lower‖ ones as bees and birds are able to communicate with each other. We have been care-ful in using the term ―animal communication system‖ to indicate this ability. But language is human-specific which is not merely a tool used to transmit information but also a means of social communication. Linguists made a list of ―design features‖, which are found utterly ab-sent in animal communication and thus distinguish human language from animal‘s cry.

ii. There are fundamental differences between h uman language and other animals‘ ways of com-municating, such as the ―design feature‖ could distinguish human language from other sys-tems of communication. For instance, 1) Duality, animals that use vocal signals have a stock

of basic sounds which vary according to species. A cow has less than ten, a chicken has around twenty, but most animals can use each basic sound to stand for one thing only, so the communicative power of animal language is highly limited. However, human language has a number of sound units, or phonemes and each phoneme can become meaningful when it is combined with other phonemes, so we say human language operates on two levels of struc-tures. 2) Productivity or Creativity, it means that human beings can produce novel utterances whenever they want. The robin is creative in its ability to sing the same thing in many ways, but not creative in its ability to use the same units of the system to express many different messages with different meanings. 3 ) Displacement, it is a property of language enabling people to talk about things being remote either in space or in time. Most animals can only communicate about things in the immediate situation.

本题考查语言的本质特征。结合所学知识和自己对这一组特征的理解，先给出自己的观点，再阐释动物语言系统和人类语言系统的区别

6. Why do we say linguistics is a science? （北二外2011研）

本题答案Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It tries to answer the basic questions "What is language?" and "How does language work?" Linguistics studies not any particular language, e. g. English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies languages in general.

It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which arc found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation ; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.

本题考查语言学作为一门学科，其科学性，为开放试题。从其研究内容和方法角度作答即可。

7. What are the three metafunctions of Systemic Functional Grammar? Illustrate each of them with specific examples. （武汉大学2011研）

本题答案：According to Halliday, the adult's language becomes much more complex and it has to serve man-y more functions, and the original functional is gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions, which are three metafunctions: the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual functions.

First, the ideational function (―experiential‖and ―logical‖) is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. Present in all language uses, the ideational function is a meaning potential, because whatever specific use one is making of language he has to refer to categories of his experience of the world.

The ideation al function mainly consists of ―transitivity‖ and ―voice‖. This function not only specifies the available options in meaning but also determines the nature of their structural realisations. For example, John built a new house can be analysed as a configuration of the function roles:

Actor: John

Process: Material: creation: built

Goal: affected: a new house

Second, the interpersonal function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act. Because the clause is not confined to the expression of transitivity, there are non-ideational elements in the adult language system.

Interpersonal function is realised by mood and modality. Mood shows what role the speaker selects in the speech situation and what role he assigns to the addressee. If the speaker selects the imperative mood, he assumes the role of one giving commands and puts the addressee in the role of one expected to obey orders. Modality specifies if the speaker is expressing his judgement or making a prediction. For example, ―Give me that teapot!‖

Mood is made up of two parts; the ―Subject‖ and the ―Finite‖ element. The subject can be a noun, a noun phrase, or a clause.

Third, the textual function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences. Although two sentences may have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they may be different in terms of textual coherence.

The textual function fulfils the requirement that language should be operationally relevant, having texture in a real context of situation that distinguishes a living passage from a mere entry in a grammar or a dictionary. It provides the remaining strands of meaning potential to be woven into the fabric of linguistic structure.

第二章音位学

Fill in the blanks

1. The sound [b] can be described with ―_______, bilabial, stop‖. （北二外2004研）

voiced /b/是双唇音，爆破音，浊音

2. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel and as a result are most conveniently described in terms of________ and manner of articulation. （北二外2004研）

place 辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。

3. ________ are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. （中山大学2006研）

Consonants 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得，气

流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞而产生的音叫做辅音。

4. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel, and as a result are most conveniently described in terms of place and _______ of articulation. （北二外2008研）manner

5. The sound [k] can be described with ―voiceless, ________, stop‖. （北二外2003研）

velar ／k／是清音，软腭音，爆破音6. ________ refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound. （中山大学2005研）assimilation 同化指一个音具有了邻近音的一部分或者全部特征的这一过程，包括鼻化、齿化、鄂化

7. Stress refers to the degree of _______ used in producing a syllable. （中山大学2006研）

force重音指在音节发音时所用的力度

8. In phonological analysis the words fail-veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating ________.

Minimal pairs如果有两个词，它们除了出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余音

都一样，那么这两个词就构成了一个最小对立体，所以fail-veil是最小对立体。

9. In English there are a number of ________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. diphthongs 如果在发音时通过舌头的一次运动，由第一个单元音滑向第二个单元音，这样产生的音的组合就叫做双元音10. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning, are ________. allophones同一个音位在不同语音环境中的实现方式被称为该音位的音位变体。因为变体是互补分布的，而且发音相似11. Phonetic similarity means that the _______ of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.

（中山大学2011研）allophones语音的相似性指一个音位的音位变体

必须具备某些语音相似性

Multiple Choices

1. All syllables contain a _______. （北二外2004研） A

A. nucleus

B. coda

C. onset

一般的音节由节首、节核和节尾构成。一个音节中可以没有节首或节尾，但一定有节核2. Of the three cavities. ________ is the most variable and active in amplifying and modifying speech sounds. （北二外2004研） C

A. nasal cavity

B. pharynx cavity咽腔

C. oral cavity

C 在三大发音器官中，气流在口腔中受挤或转向，从而产生不同的声音

3. Of the consonants /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /m/, /z/ and /g/, which has the features of voiceless and velar? （对外经贸2005研） A

A. /k/

B. /p/

C. /g/

D. /t/

/k/是清音，软腭音，爆破音。/t/是齿龈音，爆破音，清音

/g/是浊音，软腭音，爆破音。/p/是双唇音，爆破音，轻音

4. The consonant (s) in the word "smile" can be described as:

A. voiceless oral alveolar fricative

B. voiceless nasal bilabial liquid

C. voiced oral alveolar plosive

D. voiced oral bilabial fricative

（对外经贸2006研） A ／s／是清音，摩擦音，齿龈音

5. The vowel _______ is a low back vowel.

A. /i:/

B. /u/

C. /e/

D. /a:/

（西安外院2006研）D /a/是低元音，后元音，紧音

6. The categories of consonant are NOT established on the basis of_______.（大连外院2008研）C

A. manners of articulation

B. place of articulation

C. narrow transcription

7. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest, and explain the reason in ONE sentence. （南京大学2008研） D A、B、C都是摩擦音，但D是爆破音

A. /f/

B. /z/

C. /3/

D. /k/ (Focus on manner of articulation)

8. Which of the following is not a minimal pair? （对外经贸2006研）A

A. /li:f/ /fi:l/

B. /sip/ /zip/

C. /sai/ /sei/

D. /keit/ /feit/

如果有两个词，它们除了出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余音都一样，那么这两个词就构成了一个最小对立体

9. In a syllable, a vowel often serves as _______.

A. Peak or Nucleus 节核

B. Onset 节首；开始

C. Coda节尾；曲尾；完结部

（大连外院2008）A 音节中，节核通常由元音来担当

10. Classification of English speech sounds in terms of manner of articulation involves the following EXCEPT _______. D

A. fricatives

B. lateral

C. affricates

D. bilabial双唇音是根据发音部位分的

11. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in and vocabulary.

A. usage

B. grammar

C. pronunciation

D. structure

C 英音和美音最大的区别就是发音和词汇，比如发音方面，美音有儿化音

12. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?

A. [n]

B. [m]

C. [b]

D. [p]

A [n]齿龈音，另外三个是双唇音

13. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?

A. Acoustic phonetics.声学

B. Articulatory phonetics. 发音语音学研究语音的发生

C. Auditory phonetics.听觉

D. Neither of them.

True or False

1. When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiced. （大连外院2008研） F 在发音过程中，声带不振动，发出的音叫做清音

2. Of the three cavities, pharynx cavity is the most variable and active in amplifying and modifying

speech sounds. （北二外2007研）F在三大发音腔中，口腔是在发音中最灵活的

3. English consonants can be classified into two categories: voiced and voiceless consonants. （对外经贸2006研）T

4. Bilabial consonant is produced when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a nar-row passage. （对外经贸2006）F双唇音是由上唇和下唇接触使语流受阻而构成的一种辅音

5. The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.

（大连外院2008研）T 音段可分为元音和辅音

6. Uvular is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula.

（大连外院2008研）T 小舌音是由舌后部与小舌共同作用产生的音

7. A syllable can be divided into two parts, the NUCLEUS and the CODA.

（大连外院2008研） F 音节中必不可少的就是结核，即元音，节首和节尾可有可无

8. Auditory phonetics studies how sounds are perceived by the speaker.

（清华2001研）F感知语音学(或听觉语音学)研究语音的感知

9. The last sound of ―top‖ can be articulated as an unreleased or released plosive. These different realizations of the same phoneme are not in complementary distribution.

T如果两个音素出现在一个相同的语音环境中且不区别意义，这两个音素可被看作自由变体10. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communications are all phonemes.

F我们所听见和说出的声音并不总是音位，有可能是音素，只有那些能区别意义的才是音位。

11. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation. T 自由变体是指两个音素出现在一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，即用一个音素替换另一个音素不产生新词，只产生同一个词的不同读音。Explain the Following Terms

1. Glottal Stop （四川大学2006研）

2. V oiceless （西安交大2008研）

3. Minimal pairs （北航2008研，北二外2006研）

4. Phoneme （人大2006研，上海交大2007研）

5. Free variation （武汉大学2004研）

6. Assimilation （武汉大学2008研，上海交大2005研）

7. Suprasegmental features （中山大学2005研，南开2004研）

8. Syllable （四川大学2006研）

9. Complementary distribution

名词解释答案：

1. Glottal Stop: V ocal tract is composed of oral cavity, nasal cavity and pharynx. When the vocal folds are totally closed, no air can pass between them. The result of this gesture is the glottal stop.

2. When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless. For example, consonants (p, s, t) are produced this way, so they are voiceless consonants. ―V oiceless‖is defined in contrast with ―voiced‖. Consonants (b, z, d) are voiced consonants.

3. Minimal Pair are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound. For example, the English words bear and pear constitute a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and in their ini-tial phonemes /b/ and /p/.

4. Phoneme is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning. For example, in English, /p/ is described as a phoneme.

5. When two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation. For example, the final consant of cup may not be released by some speakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word. In this case, it is the same word pronounced in two different ways : (K hΛp h) and (K hΛp?). (The diacritic ―┐‖indicates ―no audible release‖ in IPA symbols. )

6. The way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. For example, in ―mink‖ , ―n‖ , which is originally pronounced as /n/, will be velarized by the following ―k‖ /k/, and therefore the word will be pronounced as /mi?k/.

7. Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound seg-ments. The principal suprasegmental features are stress, tone and intonation.

8. Syllable: These units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. For example, the English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful.

9. When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after (s) , and the unaspirated ones never occur initially. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. The allophones of /p/, for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The unaspirated (p = ) occurs after /s/, while the aspirated (p h) occurs in all other environments except after /s/.

Short Answer Questions

1. What is acoustic phonetics?

（人大2003研）本题答案Acoustic phonetics is a technical area of linguistics. It is the study of sound waves made by the human vocal organs for communication.

2. What are the three parts of the vocal organs ?

（清华2001研）本题答案The pharynx, the mouth and the nose are the three parts of the vocal organs.

3. Give the phonetic term for each of the following descriptions,

(1) the sound produced by the lower lip and the upper front teeth

(2) the sound produced with a complete closure in the mouth so that the air stream cannot escape through the mouth

（北二外2006研）本题答案( 1) labiodental ( 2 ) nasal

4. How are the vowels described usually?

（北二外2009研）本题答案Usually, the description of the vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements: (1) The height of tongue raising ( high, mid, low) ;

(2) The position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);

(3) The length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short);

(4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).

5. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?

本题答案 A suprasegmental feature refers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of sound segment. The major suprasegmental features in English include word stress, sentence stress, tone, and intonation. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.

For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the dif-fering rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like pho-nemes. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.

6. What is assimilation? Is it similar to coarticulation? What dose it include?

本题答案Assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. It is often used synonymously with coarticulation. Nasalization, dentalization and velarization are all instances of assimilation. There are two possibilities of assimilation: if a fol-lowing sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. 7. In the African language Manika, the affix, the meaning of which is similar to that of the suffixing in English, has two phonetic forms, as shown in the data given below. You are required to

(1) give the two phonetic forms of the affix;

(2) give the underlying form of the affix;

forms, using the words [ dumuni ] ―eating‖ and [ sungoli ] ―sleeping‖ to illustrate the process of derivation.

bugo hit bugoli hitting

dila repair dilali repairing

don come donni coming

dumu eat dumuni eating

gwen chase gwenni chasing

da lie down dali lying down

famu know famuni knowing

men hear menni hearing

sungo sleep sungoli sleeping .

（南开大学2011研）本题答案

(1) The two phonetic forms are: [ni ] and [ li ] .

(2) The underlying form is [ni ].

(3) [ni] → [ni] / [ -vowel] ________

[ni] → [li] / [ + vowel, -u] ________

In the word sungo, the last sound [o] is vowel so-ing form of the word is sungoli. While the last sound of the word dumu is [u] , which is quite an exception, the -ing form of the word is dumuni.

8. Transcribe the following words into IPA symbols, with stress marking where necessary.

Example: find—/ faind/, beneath—/ bi'ni:θ/

(1) corpora (2) sociologist (3) chef (4) debris (5) nasal

(6) embedding (7) antonymy (8) facial (9) annotated (10) phonetics

（中山大学2011研）本题答案

(1) corpora—/'ko: p?r?/ (2) sociologist—/s?usi' ol?d3ist/

(3) Chef—/?ef/ (4) debris—/d?'bri:/

(5) nasal—/'neiz?l/ (6) embedding—/im'bedi?)/

(7) antonymy—/'?nton?mi/ (8) facial—/'fei??l/

(9) annotated—/'?n ?uteitid/ (10) phonetics—/f?u'netiks/

9. In English, the phoneme/p/is pronounced differently in words such as pat, spat, or tap. Can you form a rule that can generalize this linguistic phenomenon?

（南开2010研）本题答案In English, there is a rule that /p/ is unaspirated after /s/ but aspirated in other places. So /p/ in pat, tap is aspirated but unaspirated in spat since it is after /s/. To bring out the phonetic difference, an aspirated sound is transcribed with a raised "h" after the symbol of the sound. So a phonetic transcription for peak is [p i'- k] and that for speak is [ spi^ k]. So [p, p ] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called al-lophones of the same phoneme. The allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context; [ p ] occurs after [ s ] while [ p h ] occurs in other places. We can present this rule as:

/p/ → [p] / [s]_______

[ p h ] elsewhere

( note: _______ is the position in which /p/ appears)

In addition sometimes a phoneme may also have free variants. The final consonant of tap may not be realized by some speakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word. Such phenomenon is called free variation.

10. What are the criteria used in phonetic description of vowels?

（厦门大学2010研）本题答案As the vowels can not be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. The cardinal vowels are abstract concept. The cardinal vowel diagram is a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points.

The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:

(1) the height of tongue raising ( high, middle or low) ;

(2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central , back) ;

(3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short);

(4) lip—rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).

For example, [ i: ] : high, front, tense, unrounded vowel.

[u] : high, back, lax, rounded vowel.

Essay Questions

1. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?

（南开2004研）本题答案When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless, consonants ( p, s, t) are produced in this way; but when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced (b, z, d) are voiced consonants.

2. What are the suprasemental features?

（西安外院2006研）本题答案Suprasegmental features refer to the phonological features above the sound segment level. They are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The major suprasegmental features in English are syllable, stress, tone and intonation.

The syllable refers to the phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes. Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel. The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.

Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. For words of more than one syllable, one is more stressed than the other. The more stressed syllable is the primary stress while the less stressed syllable is known as the secondary stress.

Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Different rates of vibration produce what is known as different frequencies, and in auditory terms as different pitches. Pitch variations may be distinctive like phoneme, that is, when they may contribute to distinguish between different words.

When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas. The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker. In English, there are four intonation patterns: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone.

3. In Chinese tone changes are used in the way that affects the meanings of individual words.

（中山大学2011研）本题答案Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages. English is not a tone language. Chinese is a typical tone language. It has four tones. The first tone is level (阴平) , the second rise( 阳平) , the third fall rise(上声) , and the fourth fall (下声). The role of the tone can be well illustrated by pronouncing the same sound combination such as [ pa ] in the four different tones and have different meanings: bā（八）High level ?eight‘

bá（拔）High rising ?pull out

b?（靶）Low falling rising ?target‘

bà（爸）High falling ?dam‘

本题考查汉语为声调语言，在解释时要举例说明声调是如何改变意义的。

第三章形态学

Fill in the blanks

1. The _______ is the minimal distinctive unit in grammar, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether lexical or grammatical. （北二外2008研）morpheme 语素是最小的语言单位，不能在不破坏或改变词义或语法意义的情况下再切分

2. Some morphemes like -ish, -ness, -ly, -dis, trans-, un-are never words by themselves but are always parts of words. These affixes are ________ morphemes.

bound 黏着语素指不能单独出现，必须至少跟一个其他语素同时出现

3. There are two fields of morphology: the study of ________ and the study of________.

（人大2006研）inflectional; lexical / derivational 屈折和派生

4. _______ is a branch of linguistics that studies the interrelationship between phonology and

morphophology. （南开2007研）形态音系学研究形态学和音系学的关系5. _______is a relatively complex form of compounding in which a new word is formed by joining the initial part of one word and the final part of another word. For example, the English word smog is made from ________ and ________. （人大2006研）

blending 把第一个词的头和第二个词的尾混成在一起，或把两个词头混在一起6. An ________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an ________ is pronounced as a word.

initialism; acronym首字母拼写和缩略词的区别：是一个一个字母读，是按单词读

7. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the ________ level.

morphemic 从词素角度讲，词可分为简单词、合成词、派生词

Multiple Choices

1. _______other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.

A. Poly morphemic words

B. Bound morphemes

C. Free morphemes

（大连外院2008研）A 多语素词可被分为词根和词缀，而合成词不能这么分

2. _______ refers to the way in which a particular verb changes for tense, person, or number.

A. Affixation

B. Inflection

C. Derivation

D. Conjugation

（西安外院2006研）Ｄ曲折变化是加词缀表现语法关系，不改变所词干的语法类别

3. Compound words consist of________ morphemes.

A. bound

B. free

C. both bound and free

（北二外2003研）Ｂ合成词的组成成分必须是自由词素

4. Which of the following words is formed by the process of blending?

A. WTO

B. Motel

C. Bookshelf

D. red-faced

（对外经贸2006研）B 混成词是把第一个词的头和第二个词的尾混成在一起，或把两个词头混在一起。Motel 是motor和hotel混成。

5. Bound morphemes do not include ________. （西安交大2008研） D

A. roots

B. prefixes

C. suffixes

D. words

6. Which two terms can best describe the following pairs of words: (table—tables, day + break —daybreak. （大连外院2008研） A 屈折变化合成词

A. inflection and compound

B. compound and derivation

C. inflection and derivation

7. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest, and explain the reason in ONE sentence. (Focus on the type of word formation) （南京大学2007研） A 是逆向法

A. burgle

B. fridge

C. auto

D. math

8. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix "-ed" in the word "learned" is known as a ( n ) ________. C 曲折变化

A. derivational morpheme

B. free morpheme

C. inflectional morpheme

D. free form

True or False

1. Some linguists maintain that a word group is an extension of word of a particular class.

（清华2001研）T 词组指一组或具有一定词性的词的组合扩展，不改变词性Words are the most stable of all linguistic units in respect of their internal structure.

（大连外院2008研）T 有词汇意义（指代动作、事物、性质）的词，如名动形副3. The words ―loose‖ and ―books‖ have a common phoneme and a common morpheme as well. （北二外2007）F 共同的语素/s/在两个词中的意义不同，前者没任何意义后者表示复数

4. Free morpheme may constitute words by themselves. （大连外院2008研）T

5. All words contain a root morpheme. （北二外2006研）T

6. Root also falls into two categories: free and bound. （北二外2006研）T

7. The word of "impossibility" contains four morphemes.

（对外经贸2006研） F 包含三个语素：im-, possibl-, ity 8. We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.

F合成词词义不一定是两个单词意义的简单相加

9. 9. All roots are free and all affixes are bound. F 词根分为自由和粘着

Explain the Following Terms

1. morpheme （四川大学2006研，武汉大学2008研）

2. inflectional morpheme （南开2004研）

3. free morphemes （西安交大2008研）

4. bound morpheme （上海交大2007研）

5. bound root （四川大学2006研）

6. functional morpheme （上海交大2005研）

7. inflection （四川大学2007研）

8. allomorph （四川大学2006研）

9. blending （四川大学2008研）

10. acronym （北航2010研）

名词解释答案

1. Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and con-tent, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For example, in boys, there are two morphemes: ―boy‖ and ―-s‖; in international, there are three morphemes: ―inter-― ―nation‖ and ―-al‖.

2. Inflectional morpheme: It is also called inflectional affixes, which attaches to the end of words Inflectional affixes and only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. The plural suffix is a typical example of this kind.

3. Free morpheme is an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word. They may occur alone, that is, they may make up words by themselves. For example, ―dog‖ , ―nation‖and ―close‖are free morphemes. And such words are called mono-morphemic words. Thus all mono-morphemic words are free morphemes.

4. Bound morphemes refer to those morphemes that can not occur alone and must appear with at least another morp heme. For example, in the word ―careless‖ , ―-less‖ is a bound morpheme since it could not occur by itself as a word.

5. Bound root refers to the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity, and this base form could not occur alone, such as ―-ceive‖ in ―receive‖.

6. This is a subtype of free morphemes, which one consists largely of the functional words in lan-guage such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, for example, ―and, about, when on, near, the‖and so on.

7. Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. For example, the past form of the verb work is real-ized by the addition of the inflectional suffix: ―-ed‖ ; the plural form of the noun child is realized by the inflectional suffix: ―-ren‖

8. Allomorph: A morpheme may take various shapes or forms, and an allomorph is any of the vari-ant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. For instance, the mor-pheme of plurality j -s( has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, as in ―cats‖ /s/, in ―bags‖ /z/, in ―matches‖ /iz/.

9. Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only join the initial parts of the two words. For example, telephone + exchange —> telex; transfer + resister —> transistor.

Short Answer Questions

1. Complete the words with suitable negative prefixes.

(1) rational (2) moral (3) regular (4) political (5) effective

(6) human (7) relevant (8) legal (9) proportionate (10) resistible

（四川大学2007研）本题答案

(1) rational: irrational (2) moral: immoral (3) regular: irregular (4) political: apolitical

(5) effective: ineffective (6) human: inhuman (7) relevant: irrelevant

(8) legal: illegal (9) proportionate: disproportionate (10) resistible: irresistible 2. (a) List the ―bound‖morphemes to be found in the following words:

misleads, shortened, unhappier, fearlessly

(b) In which of the following examples should the ―a‖ be treated as a bound morpheme:

a boy, apple, atypical, AWOL

（上海交大2005研）本题答案(a) misleads: mis-, -s shortened: -en, -ed

unhappier: un-, -er fearlessly: -less, -ly

(b) Among these examples, the ―a‖ in ―atypical‖ should be treated as a bound morpheme.

3. In English, the suffix ―-able‖ as in ―X + able‖ means ―able to be X-ed.‖

(1) Use an example to illustrate this rule.

(2) What kind of words can function as ―X‖?

(3) In words like ―unthinkable,‖ the suffix-able means more than ―able to be X-ed. ―Think of

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