医学英语阅读一分册翻译及答案

C h a p t e r 1

Passage 1 Human Body

In this passage you will learn:

1. Classification of organ systems

2. Structure and function of each organ system

3. Associated medical terms

To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc.

了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。

Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article.

解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。

The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube - shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made.

骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。

A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow - or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints.

关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动，如肘关节；或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动（如肩关节、髋关节）即成为可能。

Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective, cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant grows into an adult.

软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、骨化，使婴儿长大成人。

The muscular system allows the body to move, and its contractions produce heat, which helps maintain a constant body temperature. Striated muscles can be consciously controlled. The ends of these muscles are attached to different bones by connective tissue bands so that when the muscle contracts, one bone moves in relation to the other. This makes it possible to move the whole body, as when walking, or to move just one part of the body, as when bending a finger. Contractions of the heart and smooth muscles are not under conscious control. Smooth muscles are found in the walls of organs such as the stomach and the intestines and serve to move the contents of these organs through the body.肌肉系统使躯体运动，肌肉收缩产生的热有助于维持一个恒定的体温。人体能够有意识地控制条纹肌。结缔组织使肌肉末端附着于不同的骨面上，所以当肌肉收缩时，两骨彼此靠近而产生运动。这也就使整个人体可以运动起来，如走路，运动躯体某个部位，如弯曲手指。心脏收缩和平滑肌收缩就不是被意识所控制的。器官壁内层的平滑肌，如胃肠壁的平滑肌把胃肠中的物质运送到全身。

The circulatory system. All parts of the body must have nourishment and oxygen in order to function and grow, and their waste products must be removed before they accumulate and poison the body. The circulatory system distributes needed materials and removes unneeded ones. It is made up of the heart, blood vessels, and blood, which together make up the cardiovascular system. The blood is also part of the body's defense system. It has antibodies and white blood cells that protect the body against foreign invaders. 循环系统：机体的所有部分需要营养物质和氧气来使之发挥功能和生长，也需要在这些器官所产生的废物积聚而危害生命之前将其排除。循环系统运送有用物质，排泄废物。心血管系统是循环系统的组成之一；心血管系统包括心脏、血管及血液。血液也是机体防御系统的一个部分，血液中有抗体及白细胞来防止机体受到外来的侵袭。

The heart is a muscle that is divided into two nearly identical halves: one half receives blood from the lungs and sends it to the rest of the body, the other half sends blood that has traveled through the body back to the lungs. When the heart muscle contracts, the blood is forced out into arteries and enters small capillaries. Blood returns to the heart through veins. 心脏是一块被分为几

乎对等两半的肌肉。一半吸收来自肺部的血液，并将血液运送到机体的其余部位，另一半使流经全身的血液回流人肺。心脏收缩时，动脉把全身血液输送到毛细血管。静脉输送血液返回心脏。

Also functioning in circulation is the lymphatic system. Some of the fluid that surrounds cells does not reenter the blood vessels directly. This fluid, called lymph, returns to the heart by way of another system of channels - the lymph vessels. Lymph nodes along these vessels filter the fluid before it reenters the blood. The spleen is a large lymphatic organ that filters the blood. 淋巴系统也是循环系统的一个组成部分。一些细胞周围的体液不是直接回流入血管通道，这种体液叫淋巴液，它是流经另一个管道系统——淋巴管而回流人心脏。沿淋巴管的淋巴结将淋巴液过滤，过滤后再回流人血液。脾是一个过滤血液的大淋巴器官。

The respiratory system takes in oxygen from the air and expels carbon dioxide and water vapor. Air enters the nose and mouth and travels through the larynx, and trachea. The trachea divides to enter each of the two lungs and then divides more than 20 times to form a very large number of small air spaces. Oxygen from the air enters the blood through capillaries in the walls of these air spaces, and the blood release carbon dioxide into the air spaces to be exhaled. 呼吸系统从空气中摄取氧气，并将二氧化碳、水蒸气排出体外。空气经鼻腔、口腔人喉管、气管。气管分成左右支气管，各连结左右肺，左右支气管再分枝20多次，在终端形成大量微小的肺泡。从空气摄取的氧气流经这些肺泡壁内的毛细血管流入血液，血液再经肺泡把释放出的二氧化碳排出体外。

The digestive system consists of a tube extending from the mouth to the anus. In it, food and fluids are taken in, moved through the body, and broken down into small molecules that are absorbed into the circulatory system. This breakdown, known as digestion, is both a mechanical and a chemical process.消化系统是一个从口腔直到肛门的管道。食物和液体在消化道里被吸收，在肠道里移动时，被分解成小分子物质后再进入循环系统。这种分解，即消化，是一个机械过程，也是一个化学过程。

Food enters through the mouth, where chewing and saliva start to break it up and make it easier to swallow. Next, the food travels down through the esophagus to the stomach. Contractions of the stomach's muscular wall continue to break down the food mechanically, and chemical digestion continues when acid and enzymes are secreted into the stomach cavity. 食物进入口腔里，咀嚼和唾液开始将食物粉碎，使之便于吞咽。接着，食物经食管人胃。胃肌壁的收缩继续机械化地分解食物，而当酸和酶分泌入胃腔时，化学性消化开始。

The liquified food gradually passes into the small intestine. In the first part of the small intestine, called the duodenum, enzymes from the pancreas are added. These enzymes complete the chemical breakdown of the food. The digestion of fat is aided by bile, which is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. The small intestine of an adult is about 21 feet (6.4 meters) long. Most of its length is devoted to absorbing the nutrients released during these digestive activities. 液体化食物逐渐进入

小肠。小肠的起始部分叫十二指肠，胰腺分泌的酶辅助食物消化。这些酶完成食物的化学分解。肝脏分泌的胆汁贮存在胆囊内，胆汁有助于脂肪消化。一个成年人的小肠有21英尺（6.4米）长。小肠的大部分肠段用来吸收消化过程中释放的营养物质。

The liquid remainder of the food enters the large intestine, or colon, which is about 12 feet (3.7 meters) long. It is more than twice as wide as the small intestine. In the large intestine most of the fluid is absorbed, and the relatively dry residues are expelled. 液状的剩余食物进入大肠，或结肠，它大约有12英尺（3.7米）长。大肠是小肠的两倍多宽。大部分液体在大肠内被吸收，相对干化的残余物被排出体外。

The urinary system maintains normal levels of water and of certain small molecules such as sodium and potassium in the body. It does this by passing blood through the kidneys, two efficient filtering organs that get rid of any excess of various molecules and conserve those molecules that are in short supply. 泌尿系统维持水分及体内某些小分子物质，如钠、钾的正常水平。身体是通过让’肾过滤血液来做到这一点的。肾是两个有效的过滤器官，它滤出各种多余的小分子物质，保留那些供应不足的小分子物质。

The fluid that leaves the kidneys, known as urine, travels through a tube called the ureter to the bladder. The bladder holds the urine until it is voided from the body through another tube, the urethra. 从肾流出的液体，即尿，通过输尿管人膀胱。膀胱起贮存尿液的作用，直到尿经膀胱另一端的管道排出。

The endocrine system. The two systems that control body activities are the endocrine system and the nervous system. The former exerts its control by means of chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones are produced by a variety of endocrine glands, which release the hormones directly into the blood stream. 内分泌系统。内分泌和神经是调控机体活动的两个系统，前者依靠其化学信使——激素发挥作用。激素是由各种内分泌腺体制造，并直接被释放入血流

A major gland is the pituitary, which is located under the brain in the middle of the head. It produces at least eight hormones, which affect growth, kidney function, and development of the sex organs. Because some of the pituitary's hormones stimulate other glands to produce their own hormones, the pituitary called the master gland. 脑垂体是一个主要腺体，它位于头中部脑下方。它至少分泌八种激素，这些激素对人体生长、肝功能及性器官发育有影响。因为脑垂体分泌的一些激素促进其他腺体分泌激素，所以脑垂体是主要腺体。

Another gland, the thyroid, is located between the collar bones. Its hormone controls the rate of the body's metabolism. The sex organs (ovaries end testes) make the sex cells and also make hormones that control certain characteristics of males and females. Located on top of each kidney is the adrenal gland, which produces cortisone and adrenaline. The pancreas produces not only digestive enzymes but also 3 insulin and glucagon, which control the body's use of sugar and starches. 另一个腺体，甲状腺，位于锁骨之间。甲状腺激素调控着机体新陈代谢的速度。性器官（卵巢、睾

丸）分泌性细胞和性激素，这些激素控制着男性和女性的某些特征。每边肾上方是肾上腺，它分泌可的松和肾上腺激素。胰腺不仅分泌消化酶，而且分泌胰岛素和高血糖素，这两种激素控制机体的糖分及淀粉的消耗。

The nervous system. The brain, the spinal cord and the nerve - also controls body activities. The lower parts of the brain control basic functions such as breathing and heart rate as well as body temperature, hunger, and thirst. Above these regions are the centers for sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste, and the regions that direct voluntary muscular activities of the arms and legs. Performed here are the higher functions of integrating and processing information. 神经系统——脑、脊髓及神经，也调控机体活动。脑的偏下部位控制着诸如呼吸、心跳、体温、饥渴的基本活动。而脑的偏上部位则是视觉、听觉、触觉、嗅觉及味觉中心，也是指挥臂、腿随意肌肉运动的区域。神经系统更高级的功能是整合、处理信息。

The brain receives and sends information by means of nerves, many of which lie partly in the spinal cord. The spinal cord is protected by the spinal column. Nerves enter and leave the spinal cord at each level of the body, traveling to and from the arms, legs, and trunk. These nerves bring information from the various sense organs. The information is processed by the brain, and then messages are carried back to muscles and glands through out the body. 脑通过神经收集并传送信息，许多神经部分地分布在脊髓里。脊髓由脊柱保护。在机体每一级，神经传人、传出脊髓，往返于臂、腿、躯体。这些神经输送来自各种感觉器官的信息。信息经脑处理后输送回全身及腺体

The reproductive system is constructed differently for males and females. The male reproductive system is responsible for producing, transporting and maintaining viable sperm (the male sex cell). It also produces the male sex hormone, testosterone, which regulates the development of a beard, pubic hair, a deep voice and other bodily characteristics of the adult male. 男、女性的生殖系统不同。男性生殖系统产生、输送、维持能存活的精子（男性性细胞）。它也分泌男性激素、睾酮，以此调节胡须、阴毛、深沉嗓音极其他成年男子身体发育的特征。

The female productive system is responsible for producing and transporting ova (the female sex cells), eliminating ova from the body when they are not fertilized by sperm, nourishing and providing a place for growth of an embryo when an ovum is fertilized by sperm, and nourishing a newborn child. The female reproductive system also produces the female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the development of breasts and other bodily characteristics of the mature female. 女性生殖系统产生、输送卵子（女性性细胞），将未受精的卵子排出体外，而当精、卵结合时，女性生殖系统培养、提供胚胎生长场所，并孕育新生儿。女性生殖系统也分泌女性性激素——雌激素和孕酮，以此调节乳房及其他成熟女性身体发育的特征。

The skin is a complete layer that protects the inner structures of the body, and it is the largest of the body's organs. It keeps out foreign substances and prevents excessive water evaporation. The nerves in the skin provide tactile information. The skin also helps keep the body's temperature close

to 37 °C, heat is conserved by reducing blood flow through the skin or is expended by increa sing blood flow and by evaporation of sweat from the skin. Hair and nails are accessory structures of the skin. 皮肤是保护肌体内层结构的完整层，也是机体的最大器官。皮肤防御外来侵袭，防止过多水分蒸发。皮肤上的神经提供触觉信息。皮肤也能将体温维持到98.6华氏度（约37摄氏度）。通过皮肤的血流量降低时，热量就被储存起来，通过皮肤的血流增加及汗液蒸发时，热量就散发。头发及指甲是皮肤的附属结构。

Cells and Tissues细胞与组织

In this passage, you will learn:1.Human body systems as a whole 2.Vital parts of a cell 3.Four kinds of tissues

Cells are organized into tissues, and tissues are arranged into organs, which in turn are grouped into systems. Each body system serves its specific functions. Bear in mind however that the body functions as a whole----no system is independent of the others. They work together to maintain the body’s state of internal stability, terme d homeostasis. Now let’s begin our discussion with cells, the smallest unit of living matter that can exist by itself. 细胞构成组织，组织构成器官，器官又进一步构成系统。人体的每个系统都有其特定功能，但是，请记住这里:机体是作为一个整体来发挥作用的，没有哪个系统能够独立于其他系统而存在，是整体系统共同作用保持了机体内部的稳定状态，即体内平衡。现在，我们先讨论细胞─能独立存在活性物质的最小单位。

The body can be studied from its simplest to its most complex level, beginning with the cell. All body functions result from the activities of billions of the specialized cells. Some plants and animals consist of only a single cell. Others are composed of many billions of cells. 从细胞开始，我们能够从最简单到最复杂的水平来研究机体。所有人体的功能都来自亿万个特定细胞活动，有的动植物仅由一个细胞构成，其他生物则由亿万个细胞构成。

Cells exist in a variety of shapes and sizes. They may, for example, be cube-shaped or flat. Scientists who study cells have determined that a single cell may be as large as a tennis ball or so small that thousands would fit on the point of a needle. The yolk of a hen’s egg is actually a very large cell. By contrast, bacteria----each one of which is a tiny cell----are among the smallest cells. Regardless of its shape or size, every cell contains the “machinery” needed to maintain life. While normally cells function with great efficiency, they are subject to various disorders that result in disease. 细胞有很多种形状和大小。列如：有可能是立方形或扁形的。科学家的研究发现单独一个细胞可以像网球一样的大小，或小到几千个细胞才能刚好填满针头。鸡的蛋黄是一个非常大的单细胞。微小的细菌呢算是最小的细胞。不管是细胞大小或形状的不同，每个细胞都有“需要存活的机制”。对每个正常的细胞，有效力的细胞，都存在许多问题，能导致疾病。

The size of cells is usually measured in microns. A micron is a millionth of a meter, and about 25,000 microns equal one inch. The smallest bacteria are about 0.2 micron in diameter. The average

cell in the human body----about ten microns in diameter----is a speck barely visible without the aid of a microscope. 细胞的大小是以“微米”为长度单位。微米是一米的一百万分之一，25000微米等于一寸。最小的细菌的圆径是0.2微米。人体正常细胞的评价圆径约十微米，肉眼勉强可以看得到，不需要显微镜的帮助。

The study of cells is the branch of biology called cytology. The science that deals with cells on the smallest structural and functional level is called molecular biology. 研究关于“细胞”是生物学的分支，成为细胞生物学。在最微小水平针对细胞的结构及功能的研究成为分子生物学。

All cells consist of protoplasm, the “living jelly.” The protoplasm of a typical cell forms three vital parts----the cell membrane, the cytoplasm, and the nucleus. The membrane encloses the other cell structures. Much of the chemical work of the cell is done in the cytoplasm, which surrounds the nucleus. The nucleus, enclosed by its own membrane, is the control center of the cell. (see Figure 1-1) 所有细胞都是以“原生质”，又称“生命胶质”所形成的。典型细胞的原生质形成了三个重要部分，细胞膜、细胞质和细胞核。细胞膜圈住了细胞的其他结构。大部分的化学反应都在细胞核周围，细胞质完成的。被自己的膜包围的细胞核是细胞的控制中心。

the cells Membrane细胞膜

Cells can survive only in a liquid medium that brings in food and carries away waste. For one-celled organisms this fluid is an external body of water----the ocean, a lake, or a stream. For many-celled plants and animals, however, the medium is part of the organism----in plants, the sap; in animals, the blood. 细胞只能存活在能供养分又能排除废物的液体媒介中。对单细胞生物来说，这就是细胞外的液体，如：大海里、河里或水流中。在对多细胞生物而言，这种媒介就是生物体的一部分，植物以汁液的形式，动物以血液的形式。

The cell membrane is semipermeable, or differentially permeable----some substances can pass through it, but others cannot. This characteristic enables the cell to admit useful substances and to reject harmful substances from the surrounding fluid as well as to force out, or excrete waste products into the fluid. 细胞膜是半渗透性或区别性的渗透膜，即某些物质能渗透。这个特殊性使细胞对细胞周围只吸收了需要的物质而排除掉有害的物质，包括细胞内的废物通过液体化后排出细胞外。

The cell membrane is an extremely thin but tough band of protein and phospholipid molecules. Phospholipids are chemicals similar to stored fat. On the evidence of electron micrographs, biologists believe that it has pores through which certain small molecules pass intact. Substances probably pass through the cell membrane in several ways. Small chambers located on the cell membrane called caveolae gather chemical signals and channel them into the cells. The caveolae may also help distribute proteins throughout the cell. Large molecules enter the cell by a process called diffusion, in which they may be dissolved by substances in the cell membrane. They can then through the membrane without difficulty. Some cells take in large molecules by means of pinocytosis. In this

process, the cell membrane forms a pocket around large molecules floating against it. The molecule-and-fluid-filled pocket then breads loose from the membrane to become a bubblelike vacuole, and the vacuole then drifts into the cytoplasm. Finally, the vacuole wall breaks up and the molecules are released into the cytoplasm. 细胞膜是一种非常薄但确以很坚固的蛋白磷脂膜形成。磷脂是一种类似于储存的脂肪的蛋白物质。通过电子显微镜，生物学家相信细胞膜有孔，使较小的物质完全可以通过。物质可通过多种方式从细胞膜进入。细胞膜上的结构，称“小穴”，可接受化学信号再传到细胞内。小穴还可能参于细胞蛋白的分配。大的分子可通过“渗滤”进入细胞内，或被细胞膜内体分解，使它们更容易的进入细胞内。有些细胞可通过“胞饮”方式吞饮较大的物质。这个过程是通过细胞膜在大物质形成了“带”把它包围着，将它以泡状的“液泡”引入细胞质，最后包围解散，大物质成功的进入细胞内。

The cytoplasm细胞质

The cytoplasm is mainly water. Its water content varies from a minimum of about 65 percent to a maximum of about 95 percent. The solids in the cytoplasm include granular proteins, carbohydrates, droplets of fat, and pigments. The cytoplasm is thus a colloidal system. 细胞质主要成分是“水”。水分含量有百分之65到最高，百分之95。细胞质内的固体包括蛋白颗粒、碳水化合物、脂肪小滴和色素。细胞质是胶体性的。

The cytoplasm may be either watery or syrupy, depending on the concentration of solids dispersed in the fluid. When the solid content decreases, these structures seem to vanish. Changes in concentration also produce an apparent steaming of the cytoplasm from place to place within the cell. This occurs, for example, when food molecules enter the cell. 细胞质可能是水性或糖浆性，根据散在细胞质内固体的浓度。当固体成分浓度增多，膜状和纤维状结果在细胞质显出。而当固体成分浓度减少时，膜状和纤维状的结构就消失。浓度的变化还可以表现细胞质内局部流动的变化。食物分子进入时可见。

Most of the cell’s constant work of keeping alive is performed in the cytoplasm. H ere food molecules are changed into the material needed for energy and materials for growth or stiffening of the cell membrane are manufactures needed by the rest of the organism. For example, plant cells containing chlorophyll manufacture glucose----a plant food----from carbon dioxide and water. 大部分为了细胞存活的工作都在此处（细胞质）完成的。在此处，食物物质将被转化成提供细胞能量的材料和提供细胞生长的材料，或细胞膜的增强剂所生产。多细胞植物的细胞质还是生产了对其他生物提供食物的物质。列如：植物叶绿素所产生的葡萄糖，植物的食物，从水和二氧化碳合成。

One of the cytoplasm’s key energy transactions occurs in the sausage-shaped mitochondria. Each mitochondrion has an inner and an outer membrane. Like the cell membrane, the membranes of the mitochondrion are semipermeable. Food molecules that pass into the cytoplasm are taken into the mitochondria and oxidized, or burned, for energy. 细胞质能量转换的要点发生在锥状形的线粒体。每个线粒体都有内膜和外膜。像细胞膜一样，线粒体的膜也是半渗透性。进入线粒体

的食物分子被氧化提供出能量。

The endoplasmic reticulum, a network of membranous tubes, runs through the cytoplasm. In the opinion of some biologists, this network is a continuous structure that begins at the cell membrane, twists through the cytoplasm, and ends at the membrane surrounding the nucleus. Located along the endoplasmic reticulum as well as elsewhere in the cytoplasm are numerous ribosomes. These tiny granules consist in part of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Proteins are manufactured at the ribosomes. The Golgi complex, or Golgi apparatus, is a membranous structure composed of stacks of thin sacs. Newly made proteins move from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi complex, where they are stored for later secretion. 胞浆网，在细胞质中由膜所形成管状的网。有些生物学家认为这是一种连续性结构，始点为细胞膜，在细胞膜内扭绞，终点为细胞核的膜。分布于胞浆网包括细胞质中某处的是核糖体。这些小颗粒是核糖核酸所形成的。蛋白质是在核糖体合成的。高尔基体是膜状囊包堆成层形成的。新合成的蛋白从胞浆网移动到高尔基体储存，为了后来分泌所用。

Vacuoles drift through the cytoplasm and usually carry food molecules in solution. Lysosomes are structures somewhat similar in appearance to vacuoles but denser. They appear to have a digestive function. Each lysosome is filled with digestive enzymes and encased in a membrane. Lysosomes are believed to break down food substances brought into the cell by pinocytosis. It has been suggested that the Golgi complex plays a part in the formation of lysosomes. 在细胞质内游动的液泡一般是带着食物分子的溶液。溶酶体是一种有点像液泡的结构，但较稠。它是用来消化的。每个溶酶体的膜内都是添装着消化酶。我们认为它是消化通过“胞饮”方式的大物质。也认为高尔基体对溶酶体的形成有关系。

The Nucleus细胞核

Near the center of the cell is a roundish or oval-shaped nucleus. The nucleus controls the growth and division of the cell. It also contains the structures that transmit hereditary traits. 细胞的中央，圆形或椭圆形的就是细胞核。细胞核控制细胞的生长和分化。也装着遗传信息。

Enclosed by a two-layered membrane, the nucleus contains a liquid called nucleoplasm as well as strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) covered with a coating of protein. A strand of DNA consists of a long series of genes, which are the units of heredity of plants and animals. Genes determine the characteristics of a cell. They do this by regulating the production of RNA, which in turn controls the manufacture of specific proteins. 被两层膜圈住着，细胞核内含有称为“核质（浆）”的液体和脱氧核糖核酸的蛋白层。脱氧核糖核酸缕是很长的基因系列所组成的，它是植物和动物的遗传信息。基因决定了细胞的特征。它是通过调节核糖核酸，使核糖核酸产出特异的蛋白。

Human cells, for example, make only proteins unique to human beings DNA strands are usually too thinly strung out to be seen with an optical microscope. Because the strands are readily stained with dyes, they are called chromatin. When a cell begins to divide, however, the chromatin

thickens into the form of chromosomes. 列如：人的细胞，只产出人独特拥有的蛋白。脱氧核糖核酸缕一般都很细小过光学显微镜能观察到。因为脱氧核糖核酸缕能够染色后部分被染，称“染色质”。细胞分化过程中，染色体拾起变厚形成了“染色体”。

A nucleus not undergoing division has at least one nucleolus. The nucleolus contains a concentration of RNA. Biologists think RNA is made initially in the nucleus according to a DNA “blueprint” and stored there until needed for protein manufacture. 细胞核分化核仁不会减少，最少要有一个核仁。核仁含有丰富的核糖核酸。生物学家认为核糖核酸原本在核仁里，根据脱氧核糖核酸的蓝图造出而藏在此处直到有蛋白合成的需要。

the nucleus of animal cells is a spherical structure called the centrosome, from which asters radiate. The centrosome contains a pair of rodded structure called centrioles, which usually lie at right angles to each other. Although centrioles and centrosomes have not been seen in plant cells, biologists believe that plant cells contain similar structures. 靠近动物的细胞核的圆形结构叫“中心体”，可见呈放射状散发的星体。中心体内含有一对棍状结构，称为“中心粒”，一般都形成正确固定的角度。无法在植物细胞发现中心体和中心粒，但生物学家认为植物应该有存在类似功能的其他结构。

Tissues组织

Cells are organized into tissues that perform specific functions. The four basic tissue types are as follows: 多细胞组成了组织，为了特异的功能。四种基本的组织：

Epithelial tissues----covers and protects body structures and lines organs, vessels, and cavities. 上皮组织: 覆盖及保护着身体结构和分清器官、导管和空腔。

Connective tissues----supports and binds body structures. It contains fibers and other nonliving material between the cells; included are fat tissues, cartilage, bone and blood. 结缔组织: 支柱和联结着身体结构。包括细胞之间的纤维和其它无生物结构。包括脂肪组织、软骨、骨头和血液。

Muscle tissues----contracts to produce movement. The three types are：skeletal or voluntary muscle that moves the skeleton; the cardiac muscle of the heart; and the smooth muscle that forms the walls of the abdominal organs. Cardiac and smooth muscle can function without conscious control and are thus described as involuntary muscle. 肌肉组织: 通过收拾来产生动作。分为三种：骨骼肌，作用于一般骨骼移动。心机，心脏的肌肉。平滑肌，形成胃肠道壁的肌肉。心机和平滑肌是非意识性，不随意性肌肉。

Nervous tissue——makes up the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It coordinates and controls body responses by transmitting electrical impulses. 神经组织: 组成大脑、脊椎和神经。它是通过动作电位来超空身体。

The simplest tissues are membranes. Mucous membranes secrete thick fluid called mucus that

protects underlying tissues. Serous membranes secrete a thin, watery fluid. They line body cavities and cover organs. 最简单的组织就是膜。粘液膜分泌出粘稠的胶液，起得组织保护作用。粘液组织分泌出较稀的粘液，起得身体导管的分界和覆盖着各个器官。

Human diseases

In this passage you will learn: 1.disease and pathology 2.the classification of diseases 3.germs’ invasion of the human body 4.the body’s defense against invasion 5.the body’s immunity to diseases

The brief survey of the human body in Chapter One has given us a glimpse into two different studies that are considered the fundamentals of medical sciences, namely anatomy and physiology. However, the picture is not complete without considering pathology, the science that deals with the structural and functional changes produced by the disease. In fact, the modern approach to the study of disorder emphasizes the close relationship of the pathological and physiological aspects and the need to understand the fundamentals of each in treating any body diseases. 第一章中，通过对人体的概论，即解剖学与生理学，我们对两种被认为是医学基础的不同学科有了一个大致的印象。然而如果我们不考虑病理学，这门涉及由疾病带来的结构和功能变化的学科，上述的人体概论就不是完整的。实际上，现代对疾病的研究方法强调了病理学与生理学方面的密切关系，强调了我们在治疗任何人体疾病方面需要了解病理学与生理学基础的重要性。

Then what is a disease? It may be defined as a condition that impairs the proper function of the body or of one of its parts. Every living thing, both plants and animals, can succumb to disease. People, for example, are often infected by tiny bacteria, but bacteria, in turn, can be infected by even more minute viruses. 那么什么是疾病呢？它可能被定义为正常的功能或是部分功能遭受损害时的一种状态。每一种生物、植物和动物，都会受制于疾病。例如，人类常常被微小的细菌所感染，但是，反过来说，细菌又能够被甚至更加微小的病毒所感染。

Hundreds of different diseases exist. Each has its own particular set of symptoms and signs, clues that enable a physician to diagnose the problem. A symptom is something a patient can detect, such as fever, bleeding, or pain. A sign is something a doctor can detect, such as a swollen blood vessel or an enlarged internal body organ. 许多种疾病存在于世。每一种都有其特定的症状、征兆和线索，医生能以此诊断疾病之所在。症状是病人自己就能觉察到的，比如，高烧、流血，或是疼痛。而征兆则是医生能够观察到的，比如，血管扩张或是体内器官肿大。

Diseases can be classified differently. For instance, an epidemic disease is one that strikes many persons in a community. When it strikes the same region year after year it is an endemic disease. An acute disease has a quick onset and runs a short course. An acute heart attack, for example, often hits

without warning and can be quickly fatal. A chronic disease has a slow onset and runs a sometimes years-long course. The gradual onset and long course of rheumatic fever makes it a chronic ailment. Between the acute and chronic, another type is called subacute. 疾病可以划分为不同的种类，例如，流行病是一种在某一社区内侵袭许多人的疾病。当它年复一年地袭击同一社区，就成了一种地方病。急性病发作快，但病程短，举个例子来说，急性心脏病发作常常没有前兆，而且会很快致命。慢性病发作则慢，但病程有时会长达几年之久。风湿热正是由于发病慢、病程长而成为一种慢性失调病（慢性病）。而介于急性与慢性之间的另一种类型，就被称为亚急性。

Diseases can also be classified by their causative agents. For instance, an infectious, or communicable, disease is the one that can be passed between persons such as by means of airborne droplets from a cough or sneeze. Tiny organisms such as bacteria and fungi can produce infectious diseases. So can viruses. So can tiny worms. Whatever the causative agent might be, it survives in the person it infects and is passed on to another. Sometimes, a disease-producing organism gets into a person who shows no symptoms of the disease. The asymptomatic carrier can then pass the disease on to someone else without even knowing he has it. 疾病也可以依其病原体来划分，例如，传染病也叫作可传播的疾病，就是一种通过咳嗽和打喷嚏造成的空气小粒来传播的疾病。极小的有机体，如，细菌和真菌可导致传染病。病毒和小虫子也不例外。不论病原体会是什么样，只要它存活于人体内就能够传染给别人。有时，一个致病的有机体侵人人体后，该人却没有显示带病的症状。于是无症状的病原携带者甚至在自己也不知情的情况下就把疾病传染给了他人。

Noninfectious diseases are caused by malfunctions of the body. These include organ or tissue degeneration, erratic cell growth, and faulty blood formation and flow. Also included are disturbances of the stomach and intestine, the endocrine system, and the urinary and reproductive systems. Some diseases can be caused by diet deficiencies, lapses in the body's defense system, or a poorly operating nervous system. 非传染性疾病是由身体功能失调引起的。这包括血管或组织退化、异常细胞生成，以及异常的血液生成和血液循环。当然其中也包括胃、肠、内分泌系统和泌尿生殖系统的紊乱。一些疾病也可能是由饮食不足、身体抵抗力下降、或是神经系统工作不造成的。

Disability and illnesses can also be provoked by psychological and social factors. These ailments include drug addiction, obesity, malnutrition, and pollution-caused health problems. 心理因素和社会因素也会引发残废和疾病，这些病包括吸毒成性、肥胖、营养不良和由污染造成的健康问题。

Furthermore, a thousand or more inheritable birth defects result from alternations in gene patterns. Since tiny genes are responsible for producing the many chemicals needed by the body, missing or improperly operating genes can seriously impair health. Genetic disorders that affect body chemistry are called inborn errors of metabolism. Some forms of mental retardation are hereditary. 而且，有上千种乃至为数更多的遗传性出生缺陷是由于基因变化而造成的。由于小小的基因

负责着生产许多身体所需的化学物质，它的遗失或是工作状态不良都会严重损害健康。因基因失调而被影响了的身体化学反应被称之为先天性代谢失调。一些眢力发育迟缓就是因遗传而造成的。

How Germs Invade the Body病菌是怎样侵袭身体

Humans live in a world where many other living things compete for food and places to breed. The pathogenic organisms, or pathogens, often broadly called germs, that cause many diseases are able to invade the human body and use its cells and fluids for their own needs. Ordinarily, the body's defense system can ward off these invaders.人类生活在有一个有许多其它生物竞争食物和求得繁衍的世界里。很多致病的有机体或病原体，通常被我们广义地称为病菌的东西能侵入人体并利用其细胞和组织液来供它们自身的需求。一般来讲，身体防御系统能够阻止这些入侵者。

Pathogenic organisms can enter the body in various ways. Some - such as these that cause the common cold, pneumonia, and tuberculosis - are breathed in. Others - such as those that cause venereal diseases - enter through sexual contact of human bodies. Still others - such as those that cause hepatitis, colitis, cholera, and typhoid fever-get in the body through contaminated food, water or utensils. 病原有机体能通过多种方式进入身体。它们的一些是被呼吸进体内的，比如那些引起普通感冒、肺炎和肺结核的病菌；其它的是通过人体性接触进入的，比如那些引起花柳病的病原体；还有另外的一些是通过污染了的食物、水或器皿进入体内的，比如那些引起肝炎、霍乱和伤寒热的病原体。

Insects can spread disease by acting as vectors, or carriers. Flies can carry germs from human waste or other tainted materials to food and beverages. Germs may also enter the body through the bite of a mosquito, louse, or other insect vector.昆虫作为媒介动物或是病原携带者会传播疾病。苍蝇能将病菌从人类的废物或其它腐烂的材料中带到食物和饮料中去。通过蚊子、虱子或其它媒介动物的叮咬，病菌也可能进入体内。

How the Body Fights Disease身体是怎样抵抗疾病的

As a first line of defense, a healthy body has a number of physical barriers against infection. The skin and mucous membranes covering the body or lining its openings offer considerable resistance to invasion by bacteria and other infectious organisms. If these physical barriers are injured or burned, infection resistance drops. In minor cases, only boils or pimples may develop. In major cases, however, large areas of the body might become infected.作为第一条防线，一个健康的身体有许多屏障来抵御感染的发生。覆盖在体表或者器官开口处的皮肤和粘膜能在很大程度上抵抗细菌或其它感染体的入侵。如果这些屏障遭到了损坏或烧伤，身体对感染的抵抗力就会下降。在一些病情较轻的病例中，疥子和小脓胞可能会发生。在病情较重的病例中，身体的大面积区域则可能会被感染。

Breathing passages are especially vulnerable to infection. Fortunately, they are lined with mucus-secreting cells that trap tiny organisms and dust particles. Also, minute hairs called cilia line the

breathing passages, wave like a field of wheat, and gently sweep matter out of the respiratory tract. In addition, foreign matter in the breathing passages can often be ejected by nose blowing, coughing, sneezing, and throat clearing. Unfortunately, repeated infection, smoking and other causes can damage the respiratory passageways and make them more susceptible to infection.呼吸通道尤其容易受到感染，幸运的是，呼吸道内覆盖满了能分泌粘液的细胞，它们能捕捉微小的有机体和尘粒。另外，被叫做纤毛的细小的毛发也覆盖了呼吸道，它们象微风下麦田里的小麦一样舞动着，轻轻地将异物扫出呼吸道。除此之外，呼吸道内的异物还常常因为擤鼻涕、咳嗽、打喷嚏和清喉咙而被弹出。不幸的是反复感染、抽烟或其它别的原因会损坏呼吸道，并且使它们容易受到感染。

Many potential invaders cannot stand body temperature (98.6 °F or 37 °C). Even those that thrive at that temperature may be destroyed when the body assumes higher, fever temperatures. 很多潜在的人侵者不能在华氏98.6度或摄氏37度下生存。如果体温再升高一点，达到高烧温度，甚至一些在先前温度下能蓬勃繁殖的病菌也可能会因此而遭到毁灭。

Wax in the outer ear canals and tears from eye ducts can slow the growth of some bacteria. And stomach acid can destroy certain swallowed germs.外耳道里的蜡质和泪管里的眼泪能减缓一些细菌的生长速度，而胃酸也能毁掉某种吞食进去的病菌。

The body's second line of defense is in the blood and lymph. Certain white blood cells flock to infected areas and try to localize the infection by forming pus-filled abscesses. Unless the abscess breaks and allows the pus to drain, the infection is likely to spread. When this happens, the infection is first blocked by local lymph glands. For example, an infection in the hand travels up the arm, producing red streaks and swollen, tender lymph glands in the armpit. Unless the infection is brought under control, it will result in blood poisoning. 身体的第二条防线是在血液和淋巴里。某些白细胞群聚集在被感染区，并通过形成脓块使感染局部化。如果脓块不破裂，里面的脓不排除掉，感染很可能会扩大。当这发生时，感染首先被该区域的淋巴腺挡住。例如，手上的感染在向上传到手臂时，手臂上会出现红线条，腋窝处会肿胀，有触痛。如果不及时控制住感染的上传，将会导致血液中毒。

Phagocytes are located at various sites to minimize infection. One type in the spleen and liver keeps the blood clean. Others in such high-risk areas as the walls of the bronchi and the intestines remove certain bacteria and shattered cells. 吞噬细胞处于身体多种不同的部位而使得感染的机会变小。位于肝脾内的一类能使身体的血液保持干净。其它的位于像支气管壁和肠壁这样高危险区的类型能清除某类细茵和已解体的细胞。

How We Become Immune to Disease我们是怎样变得对疾病有免疫力的

The body has a special way of handling infection. It has a system that fends off the first traces of an infectious substance and then, through a "memory," gives the body a long-lasting immunity against future attacks by the same kind of invader. 身体处理感染有其特殊的方法。它有一个系统，能够

一开始就阻止感染性物质的侵袭，然后通过“记忆”，它能给身体—个长期的免疫力来抵抗将来由同种入侵者引起的侵袭。

Many substances could harm the body if they ever entered it. These substances, or antigens, range from bacteria and pollen to a transplanted organ (viewed by the body as an invader). To fight them the body makes special chemicals known as antibodies.许多物质对身体有害，如果它们一旦进入身体的话。这些物质，或称为抗原，包括从细菌，花粉到被移植的器官都被身体视为人侵者。为了抵抗它们身体制造出了特殊的化学物质，这就是抗体。

Antibodies are a class of proteins called immunoglobulins. Each antibody is made of a heavy chain of chemical subunits, or amino acids, and a light chain of them. The light chain has special sites where the amino acids can link with their complements on the antigen molecule. When an antibody hooks up with an antigen, it often puts the antigen out of action by inactivating or covering a key portion of the harmful substance. In some cases, through the process of opsonization，antibodies "butter" the surface of some antigens and make them "tastier" to phagocytes, which engulf the antigens. Sometimes an antibody hooks to a bacterial antigen but needs an intermediate, or complement, to actually destroy the bacterium. As the antibody- antigen complex circulates in the blood, the complex "fixes" complement to it. In turn, the complement causes powerful enzymes to eat through the bacterial cell wall and make the organism burst.抗体是一类被称为免疫球蛋白的蛋白质。每一个抗体由一条化学亚单位（即氨基酸）的重链和一条轻链所构成。这条轻链上有特别的部位，在那里，氨基酸能使其补体和抗原分子相连。当一个抗体与一个抗原粘和上以后，氨基酸常通过使抗原失去活性或覆盖，它的关键有害部分来使抗原失去其作用。在某些情况下，通过调理素作用的过程，抗体在抗原表面涂抹上一些“奶油”，让吞噬细胞更喜欢吞噬它们。在另一些情况下，抗体和一个细菌抗原粘和上以后，却需要一个中间体，或补体来实施对该细菌的消灭。于是，当抗体和抗原的结合体随血液循环时，该结合体会有一个补体附体。结果是补体产生一种强烈的酶，咬穿了细菌的细胞壁，细菌有机体就爆开了。

There are several kinds of immunoglobulins - IgM, the largest; IgG, the most plentiful and versatile; and IgA, the next most plentiful and specially adapted to work in areas where body secretions could damage other antibodies. Other immunoglobulins are tied in with allergic reactions, IgM is made at the first signs of an antigen, and it is later supplanted by the more effective IgG.抗体有若干种免疫球蛋白：体积最大的是igM，数量最多、用途最多的是IgG，而IgA的数量次多，但它特别适合在其它抗体易被身体内分泌物杀死的部位工作，还有其它的免疫球蛋白专门在过敏物质出现时启动。一有抗原出现，igM首先被产生，稍后被更有效的IgG所取代。

When infection first strikes, the immunity system does not seem to be working. During the first day or so, antibodies against the infection cannot be found in the blood. But this is only because the basic cells involved in antibody production have been triggered by the presence of antigen to multiply themselves. The antibody level starts to rise on about the second day of infection and then zooms upward. By the fifth day the antibody level has risen a thousandfold.当传染病首次进攻，免疫系统

似乎没有运转起来。在第一天左右，血液中没有发现对付传染病的抗体。但是，这只是因为涉及抗体制造的基本细胞已被当前的抗原存在所触发而正准备开始繁殖。大约在感染的第二天，抗体水平开始升高，接着直线上升，大约在第五天抗体水平已升高了千倍。

The first antibodies, the large IgM type, are not the best qualified to fight a wide range of antigens, but they are particularly effective against bacteria. The more versatile IgG is circulating in the blood on about the fourth day of infection. Its production is stimulated by the rising level of IgM in the blood. At this time, IgM production drops off and the immunity systems concentrates on making IgG. The IgG type of antibody sticks well to antigens and eventually covers them so that the antigens can no longer stimulate the immune response and IgG production is switched off. This is an example of negative feedback control. 最开始出现的抗体，及大个的IgM，不是对付广谱抗原的最好选择。但它们对付细菌特别有效。而用途广泛的IgG自感染第四天开始在血液中循环，它的产生是因为受了血液中IgM水平增高的刺激。至此，IgM的产量下降，免疫系统集中制造IgG，IgG能很好的与抗原粘连，甚至能覆盖抗原，使抗原不能再激发免疫反应，而系统最终停止生产IgG。这是消极反馈控制的一个例子。

Diagnosis and prognosis诊断和预后

Diagnosis 诊断

In most clinical encounters, the patient presents basic questions to the doctor: what’s wrong with me? What is causing my illness? These questions set the stage for making a diagnosis, i.e. determine the cause of an illness and a diagnosis is accomplished with history, physical examination and laboratory testing.

The process of diagnosing a disease begins with the person’s health history. The physician asks the patient questions on both present and past illnesses, family history of disease, habits and so on. The following table presents typical contents of a standard medical history.诊断在大多数的就诊过程中，病人会向医生提出一些很基础的问题，例如：“我是不是生了病？”“我的病是什么原因引起的？”这些问题促使医生去做出一个诊断，即确立生病的原因，而一个完整的诊断由病人的病史、身体检查和实验室检查所组成。诊断的过程是由采集病人的病史开始。医生向病人询问当前和过去所患过的疾病、家庭病史、生活习惯等等。下表展示了一个标准病史里所包含的典型内容。

Description of patient病人的一般情况

Age, gender, race, occupation and parity (for woman ). 年龄、性别、民族、职业、生育情况（女性）

Chief complaint主诉

Four or five words, preferably quoting the patient, stating the purpose of the visit and the duration of the complaint. Occasionally the patient states a request instead of a complaint such as I need a flu shot.用四到五个字，最好是引用患者的自述，陈述就诊的目的和病痛的持续时间。偶尔，也可将患者的要求作为主诉，如：“我需要注射流感疫苗”。

Other physicians involved in the patient’s care患者的其他保健医生续表

Name, address, telephone number, and relationship to the patient 姓名、地址、电话号码、与患者的关系

History of the present illness现病史

For each of the major symptom, what, where, when, how much, chronological course, what makes the symptom better or worse, past medical care, questions to narrow diagnostic possibilities.

每一种主要症状，包括什么症状、发生部位、发生时间、轻重程度、时间经过、症状好转或加重的影响因素、既往诊治情况及可能缩小诊断范围相关的问题

Past medical history既往史

Previous illnesses and hospitalizations, immunizations, medications the patient takes, allergies, and alcohol, tobacco, and drug habits. 既往所患疾病及住院治疗情况、计划免疫、用药情况、过敏史、吸烟、饮酒及有无药物成瘾等

Social and occupational history社会及职业史

Description of a typical day in the patient’s life and how the present illness affects it, social supports ( family, friends, and colleagues ) available to the patient, and occupational history.描述患者日常生活中典型的一天以及目前疾病对其的影响；患者可获得的社会支持（来自家庭、朋友或同事）及职业史

Family history家族史

History of genetically related diseases in the patient’s family and longevity and cause of death of family members.家族中的遗传病史，家族成员的寿命及死亡原因

Review of systems系统回顾

Systematic review of major organ systems: skin, hematopoietic system ( including lymph nodes), head, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, throat, neck, breasts, and respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, musculoskeletal, nervous, endocrine, and psychiatric systems. 主要器官系统回顾：皮肤、造血系统（包括淋巴结），头、眼、耳、鼻、口、喉、颈、乳房及呼吸系统、心血管系统、胃肠道系统、泌尿系统、肌肉骨骼系统、神经系统、内分泌和精神系统

Asking the patient’s medical history is followed by the general physical examination which

includes measuring height and weight, and taking blood pressure; listening to the heart and lungs with a stethoscope; and examining eyes, ears, and mouth. Tests of hearing and vision are sometimes performed in routine physical examinations. Reflex tests are simple tests of nerve conduction that involve, among several other tests, tapping with a rubber hammer in areas such as the knee. 询问病史之后的第二步就是全面的身体检查，其内容包括测量身高和体重、血压，对心肺进行听诊，检查眼、耳和口。测试听力和视力有时候在常规身体检查中进行。反射检查是简单的神经传导检查，其项目有好几项，包括用橡皮锤在一些部位（如膝盖）的敲打

Since the body fluids often reveal important information about the nature of the disorder, laboratory testing plays an important role in determining the patient’s disease. Blood tests can determine whether the person has anemia---that is, an insufficient amount of healthy red blood cells---infection, or a blood disease, such as leukemia. Blood analysis can also uncover nutritional deficiencies and other disorders. The glucose-tolerance test, which is used to diagnose diabetes, measures insulin activity by monitoring the level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood. 因为体液常常揭示了关于疾病的重要信息，所以在确诊病情上，实验室检查起着非常重要的作用。血液检查能判断出病人是否贫血，即正常红血细胞不足，是否有感染或患有血液病，如白血病。血液分析能显示营养不良和其它的疾病。葡萄糖耐糖实验是用来检查糖尿病的，它通过检测血液里的糖份水平来测量胰岛素的活性。

Urine is also tested for glucose as well as for bacteria, protein, and other materials. Glucose in the urine is sometimes caused by diabetes. Bacteria in the urine can indicate a kidney or bladder infection, and the presence of protein may result from a kidney disorder. A stool sample is tested for disease-causing microorganisms and for blood, which is often a symptom of intestinal disease. 尿样检验是用来探测小便里是否有葡萄糖、细菌、蛋白质及其它物质的存在。尿液中的葡萄糖有时是由糖尿病引起的，尿液中的细菌可以显示肾脏和膀胱的感染，尿液中的蛋白质可能起源于肾脏的疾病。粪便样品的检查旨在于找寻便血和引起疾病的微生物，这些常常是肠道病的症状

Spinal fluid is examined for microorganisms and other unusual contents when a nervous system disorder is suspected. Mucus from the nose and throat can be tested to identify the organisms responsible for respiratory infections. 当怀疑有神经系统病变时，医生常常通过检查脊液来发现微生物和其它不正常成分的存在。鼻腔和喉部的粘膜检查常常可确定引起呼吸道感染的生物。

A sample of tissue can be taken from an organ or any other part of the body by a process called biopsy. The tissue is then sliced into very thin sections, stained with special dyes, and studied under the microscope to discover the abnormalities in the cells.通过活检，医生可以从人体的某个器官或其它部位抽取组织样品，然后把该样品切成非常薄的切片，用特殊的染剂加以染色，再置于显微镜下观察研究，以发现细胞组织的病变。

Radiographs, or x-ray photographs, are used to examine various parts of the body. A chest x ray,

for example, can help diagnose tumors, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. X rays can also show bone fractures and other conditions of the musculoskeletal system. 放射照片，x光照片，被用来检查身体的多个部位。比如说，一张胸片有助于诊断肿瘤、肺炎和肺结核。x光照片可以显示骨折和其它有关于肌肉和骨骼系统的情况。

Radiopaque liquids are injected into the urinary tract, spinal column, circulatory system, and other areas. These materials do not allow x ray s to pass through them. Thus they allow x ray examination of soft tissues that would otherwise be invisible by x ray. Spinal cord disorders, for example, often show up in myelograms after a radiopaque liquid has been injected into the spinal canal. Various kinds of angiograms show heart and circulatory disease. In these procedures a radiopaque dye is injected into a vein or artery, x-ray photographs will then show if there is a blockage or an aneurysm.把不能穿透x光射线的液体注射入泌尿道、脊柱循环系统和其它部位。由于x 光不能通过这些物质，因而使x光能够检查其它本来x光检查不了的软组织。例如，当不透射线的液体注射人脊髓管后，x光脊髓照片常常揭示脊髓的病变。不同的血管x光片显示r 心脏和循环系统的疾病，在此过程中，不透射线的染色液被注入静脉或动脉，X光照片就能显示血管中是否存在阻塞或有动脉瘤的存在。

x-ray examination of the esophagus and stomach is carried out by having the patient swallow a radiopaque solution to highlight details in the upper gastrointestinal tract. For x raying the lower intestinal tract, the patient is given an enema.在进行食管和胃部的X光检查的时候，医生常让病人服下不透X光射线的流体，目的是让上部胃肠道受检部位特别的显著。而用X光检查肠部下端的时候，医生常常给病人施以灌肠。

CT ( computerized tomography) scanners are specialized x ray cameras that take highly detailed images of hard and soft tissues. By picturing one layer of the body’s tissues at a time, CT scanners can detect very small tumors and other disorders.计算机断层扫描仪是专业化的X光摄像机，它能拍下具有高度细节的软硬组织的照片。通过一次只拍下身体组织的一个断层，计算机断层扫描仪能侦察到很微小的肿瘤和其它病变。

Nuclear magnetic resonance, or magnetic resonance imaging, is a hazard-free, non-invasive method that uses radio waves in the presence of a strong magnetic field to probe a patient and generate visual images of thin slices of the brain, heart, liver, and other organs. The high-contrast, variable-toned images that result can uncover tumors, blood-starved tissues, and plaques. 核磁共振，或核磁共振成像，是一种没有副作用，没有伤害性，在强烈磁场下使用放射波的探测手段，它能把大脑、心脏、肝脏和其它人体器官剖析成很薄的片层，并产生高比较度、具有不同色泽的照片，能用来探测肿瘤、缺血组织及蚀斑

In the procedure termed scintigraphy, a small amount of a radioactive isotope is introduced into the body. A scintiscan camera, or gamma camera, measures the uptake and concentration of the isotope in certain tissues, such as the brain, kidney, or thyroid gland. Metabolic diseases and other disorders can be uncovered by this technique. 在一种被称为闪烁显像的方法中，少量的放射性

同位素被导人人体。一部闪烁或伽玛相机可以测量某些组织中同位素的摄入和浓度，如大脑、肾脏或甲状腺。新陈代谢病和其它一些病变可以用这种技术来发现。

Ultrasonography is useful in locating tumors of the lung and abdominal cavity. It employs ultra high frequency sound waves to form television images of internal organs. Because it produces no radiation, ultrasound is sometimes used during pregnancy to determine the size and position of the fetus. 肺部和腹腔的肿瘤用超声波检测法是有效的。它使用超高频率的声波来形成内部器官的电视图像。由于无放射性，超声波有时被用于妊娠期的妇女，以确定胎儿的位置及大小。

Both the heart muscle and the nervous system produce electrical impulses that can be measured with special machines. The electrocardiograph (ECG) is useful for diagnosing certain heart conditions. With electrodes taped t o a person’s chest, the electrical activity of the heart can be recorded while the patient is either resting or performing some activity, such as walking on a treadmill. The electroencephalogram (EEG) measures the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes attached to the head. This test detects whether there is an area if irritability in the brain, such as occurs in epilepsy. The electromyogram (EMG) records the activity of nerves in the muscles. The EMG is helpful in diagnosing degenerative nerve disorders such as multiple sclerosis.心肌和神经系统均能产生电流脉冲，可以用特殊的仪器测量出来。心电图( ECG)对于诊断某些心脏病是有用的。当心电图仪的电极被固定在病人的胸部时，无论病人是在休息还是在进行某些活动，如在计步器上走动，他心脏的电流活动都可能被记录下来。脑电图( EEG)则是通过固定在病人头上的电极来测量他脑部的电流活动。它可探测出癫痫病人的大脑区是否存在一个波动很大的区域。而肌电图(EMG)可以记录下肌肉里神经的活动，对于诊断多发性硬化症这一类的神经退化病变是有效的。

Tests of pulmonary function measure the breathing capacity of the lungs and airways. By exhaling into a tube connected to a machine called a spirometer, information is obtained on respiratory functions.肺功能测试则测量肺和呼吸道的呼吸能力。通过向一根与肺量计相连的管道呼气，就能测试出呼吸功能有关的信息。

Fiber optic technology has allowed physicians to see parts of the body that previously could be seen only by performing surgery. Fiber optic tools are essentially hair-thin glass fibers that can enter small areas and can be moved deep into the body cavities. Fiber optic technology can be used to examine the colon and the bronchial tubes in the lung.光纤技术使内科医生能看到一些从前只能通过手术才能看到的部位。光纤仪器主要是像头发丝一样细的玻璃纤维，它细得可以进入很小的区域，能够深深地进入体腔内。光纤技术可以被用来检查结肠和肺部的支气管。

A pelvic examination is performed to assess the general reproductive health of a woman. The pap smear is a test for cancer of the cervix. A breast examination can detect lumps that may indicate cancer. Mammography, a procedure that involves using special x rays to produce an image of the soft tissues of the breast, is a much more reliable way to detect tumors.骨盆检查用来评价妇女的一般生殖健康情况。巴氏实验（涂片检查）用来检查官颈癌。乳房检查能探测到可能是癌的肿块，

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Text 1 如果你打算在2006年世界杯锦标赛上调查所有足球运动员的出生证明，那么你很有可能发现一个引人注目的巧合：优秀足球运动员更可能出生于每年的前几个月而不是后几个月。如果你接着调查世界杯和职业比赛的欧洲国家青年队的话，那么你会发现这一奇怪的现象甚至更明显。 什么可以解释这一奇怪的现象呢？下面是一些猜测：a）某种占星术征兆使人具备更高的足球技能；b）冬季出生的婴儿往往具有更高的供氧能力，这增加了踢足球的持久力；c）热爱足球的父母更可能在春季（每年足球狂热的鼎盛时期）怀孕；d）以上各项都不是。 58岁的安德斯?埃里克森是佛罗里达州立大学的一名心理学教授，他说，他坚信“以上各项都不是”这一猜测。在瑞典长大的埃里克森，一直研究核工程，直到他认识到，如果他转向心理学领域，他将会有更多机会从事自己的研究。他的首次试验是在大约30年以前进行的，与记忆相关：训练一个人先听一组任意挑选的数字，然后复述这些数字。“在经过大约20小时的训练之后，第一个试验对象（复述）的数字跨度从7个上升到20个，”埃里克森回忆说。“该试验对象不断进步，在接受大约200个小时的训练后，他复述的数字已经达到80多个。” 这一成功，连同后来证明的记忆本身不是遗传决定的研究，使得埃里克森得出结论，即记忆过程是一种认知练习，而不是一种本能练习。换句话说，无论两个人在记忆力能力上可能存在怎样的天生差异，这些差异都会被每个人如何恰当地“解读”所记的信息所掩盖。埃里克森确信，了解如何有目的地解读信息的最佳方法就是一个为人所知的有意练习过程。有意练习需要的不仅仅是简单地重复一个任务。相反，它包括确定明确的目标、获得即时的反馈以及技术与结果的浓缩。 因此，埃里克森和他的同事开始研究包括足球领域在内的广泛领域中专业执行者。他们收集了能够收集的所有资料，不只是表现方面的统计数据和传记详细资料，还包括他们自己对取得很高成就的人员进行的实验室实验结果。他们的研究得出了一个非常令人惊奇的结论——我们通常称为天分的特征被高估了。或者，换句话说，专业执行者――无论是在记忆还是手术方面，在芭蕾还是计算机编程领域――几乎总是培养的，而不是天生的。 21. 文中提到足球运动员中的出生现象是用来__________. A 强调职业训练的重要性 B 聚焦世界杯上的足球巨星 C 引出什么决定了杰出表现这个话题 D 解释为什么一些足球队比其他足球队表现好

材料英语翻译

①化学这门科学在当今世界非常有用。 ②y对于x的依赖关系用y=f(x)来表示。 ③各种物质的导热能力差异很大③各种物质的导热能力差异很大。 ④这个参数可以准确地加以测量。 ⑤半导体的导电率随温度的变化而变化。 ⑥原子能的恰当名称是核能。 ⑦工程材料的性质依赖于（取决于）它们的成分、结构、合成、加工。 ⑧材料科学与工程这个术语将材料科学与材料工程结合在一起，材料科学在材料知识谱的基础知识端，材料工程在应用知识端，两者之间并没有分界线。 ⑨材料的许多性质强烈依赖于其结构，即使材料的成分保持不变。这就是为什么材料中结构-性质关系或者显微结构-性质关系至关重要。 ⑩上面的两个等式极为重要。 The two equations above are of great importance. 十一.金属棒热端的分子随着那里的温度的增加而振动得越来越快。 Molecules at the hot end of a metallic rod vibrate faster as the temperature there increases. 十二.通常这些参数中有一些是已知的。 Usually some of these parameters are known. 十三.当温度低于临界温度时，电子能自由地通过晶格运动。 As temperatures below the critical temperature, the electrons move freely throughout the lattice. 十四. A随温度的这种变化主要是由B的变化引起的。 This variation of A with temperature is due primarily to variations in B. 十五.这种复杂的关系必须用图解来表示。 This complicated relationship must be representedgraphically. 十六.原子间的键合作用部分取决于原子的价电子如何结合在一起。键的类型包括金属键、共价键、离子键、范德华键。 十七.键能与键的强度有关，特别是离子键和共价键结合的材料键能很高。高键能的材料常常具有高的熔点、高的弹性模量和低的热膨胀系数。 ③许多陶瓷材料中发现的离子键是当正电性的原子失去电子给负电性的原子，产生带正电的阳离子和带负电的阴离子而形成的。

英语阅读理解及翻译

1.A strange thing happens to nearly everybody at night(英语阅读理解) A strange thing happens to nearly everybody at night. They turn off the lights, pull up the covers and close their eyes. Six or seven sleeping hours later, they wake up again. Strange, isn't it? 一个奇怪的事情发生在几乎每个人身上，并且都在晚上。他们关上灯，拉上了窗帘和闭上他们的眼睛。六或七小时的睡眠后，他们再次醒来。奇怪，不是吗？ Sleep is a great puzzle. Scientists and doctors would like to talk about why one can't fall asleep. They are not so sure what causes sleep. 睡眠是一个伟大的谜。科学家和医生谈谈为什么不能入睡。他们不知道什么是睡眠的原因。 You will sleep best both when you are in good health and when you don't eat too much or too little. No worries and a comfortable place to sleep are important, too.你会睡得最好当你身体健康时，你不要吃太多或太少。不用担心，一个舒适的睡眠环境是重要的。 Strange things happen during sleep. For example, you often move. You would feel tired ever if you didn't move. You also dream. Part of your brain is still awake when you dream. Dreaming happens when the memory and imagination parts of your brain are still awake. 奇怪的事情发生在睡眠期间。例如，你经常搬家。你会觉得累，如果你没有动。你也做梦。你大脑的一部分仍然是清醒的时候，您也做梦。做梦时发生的记忆和想象的部分你的大脑仍然清醒。 Don't worry if you dream. Some great stories and poems were finished while the writers were dreaming. 别担心，如果你有梦想。一些伟大的故事和诗歌的作家会完成梦想。 根据短文内容,判断下列句子正(T)、误( F) 。 1. A strange thing happens to only someone at night.T 2. Scientists and doctors are both sure what causes people's sleep.F 3. When you are in good health, you can sleep very well at night.T 4. The writer means that some dreams are good for people.T 5. If you eat too much or too little before sleep, you won't sleep well.T 2. At the Barber's Shop 在理发店 Jack went to a barber's shop and had his hair cut, but when he came out, he 杰克去一家理发店剪了头发，但是当他出来时，他 was not happy with the result. When his friend Bob saw him, he laughed 是不满意的结果。当他的朋友鲍波看到他时，他笑了 and said, "What has happened to your hair,Jack?" 说，“你的头发怎么了，杰克？” Jack said, "I tried a new barber's shop today, because I wasn't quite satisfied 杰克说，“我今天尝试了新的理发店，因为我不是很满意 with my old one, but this one seems even worse." 旧的，但是这一次似乎更差。” Bob agreed. "Yes, I think you're right, Jack. Now I'll tell you what 他同意了。”是的，我想你是对的，杰克。现在我要告诉你 to do when you go into a barber's shop next time: look at all the barber's hair, 做的时候，你走进一家理发店下时间：看所有理发师的头发， find out whose hair looks worst, and then go straight to him."

考研英语阅读理解全文翻译

Text1 Habits are a funny thing. We reach for them mindlessly, setting our brains on auto-pilot and relaxing into the unconscious comfort of familiar routine. “Not ch In but habit rules the unreflecting herd,” William Wordsworth said in the 19th century. the ever-changing 21st century, even the word “habit” carries a negative connotation. So it seems antithetical to talk about habits in the same context as creativity and innovation. 习惯是件有趣的事情。我们无意识间养成了一些习惯，我们的大脑是自动运 转的，轻松进入熟知套路所带来的不自觉舒适状态。“这并非选择，而是习惯控 制了那些没有思想的人”，这是威廉?华兹华斯（William Wordsworth）19世纪时 说的话。在现在这个日新月异的21世纪，甚至习惯这个词本身也带有负面涵义。 因此，在创造和革新的背景下来谈论习惯，似乎显得有点矛盾。 But brain researchers have discovered that when we consciously develop new habits, we create parallel synaptic paths, and even entirely new brain cells, that can jump our trains of thought onto new, innovative tracks. But don’t bother trying to kil off old habits; once those ruts of procedure are worn into the hippocampus, they there to stay. Instead, the new habits we deliberately ingrain into ourselves create parallel pathways that can bypass those old roads. 但大脑研究人员发现，当我们有意识地培养新的习惯的时候，我们创建了平 行路径，甚至是全新的脑细胞，可以让我们的思路跳转到新的创新轨道上来。但 是，不必费心试图摈弃各种旧习惯；一旦这些程序惯例融进大脑，它们就会留在 那里。相反，我们刻意培养的新习惯会创建平行路径能避开原来那些老路。 “The first thing needed for innovation is a fascination with wonder,” says D Markova, author of “The Open Mind” and an executive change consultant for Professional Thinking Partners. “But we are taught instead to ‘decide,’ just as decide is to kill off president calls himself ‘the Decider.’” She adds, however, that “to all possibilities but one. A good innovational thinker is always exploring the many other possibilities.” 大学英语

英语阅读理解带翻译10篇精选参考

英语阅读理解带翻译10篇精选参考英语阅读理解带翻译10篇：给予 Like most people, I was brought up to look upon life as a process of getting. It was not until in my late thirties that I made this important discovery： giving-away makes life so much more exciting. You need not worry if you lack money. This is how I experimented with giving-away. If an idea for improving the window display of a neighborhood store flashes to me, I step in and make the suggestion to the storekeeper. One discovery I made about giving-away is that it is almost impossible to give away anything in this world without getting something back, though the return often comes in an unexpected form. One Sunday morning the local post office delivered an important special delivery letter to my home, though it was addressed to me at my office. I wrote the postmaster a note of appreciation. More than a year later I needed a post-office box for a new business I was starting. I was told at the window that there were no boxes left, and that my name would have to go on a long waiting list. As I was about to leave, the postmaster appeared in the doorway. He had overheard our conversation. “Wasn’t it you that wrote us that letter a year ago about delivering a special delivery to your home?” I said yes. “Well, you certainly are going to have a box in this post office if we have to make one for you. You don’t know what a letter like that means to us. We usually get nothing but complaints.” 像绝大部分人，我长大看待生命是一个过程获得。直到我在30月底，我作出这个重要发现：给予，距离使我们的生活如此更令人兴奋的。您不必担心如果缺乏资金。这是我尝试让-消失。如果一个主意，

英语阅读理解带翻译篇

英语阅读理解带翻译10篇：给予Like most people, I was brought up to look upon life as a process of getting. It was not until in my late thirties that I made this important discovery: giving-away makes life so much more exciting. You need not worry if you lack money. This is how I experimented with giving-away. If an idea for improving the window display of a neighborhood store flashes to me, I step in and make the suggestion to the storekeeper. One discovery I made about giving-away is that it is almost impossible to give away anything in this world without getting something back, though the return often comes in an unexpected form. One Sunday morning the local post office delivered an important special delivery letter to my home, though it was addressed to me at my office. I wrote the postmaster a note of appreciation. More than a year later I needed a post-office box for a new business I was starting. I was told at the window that there were no boxes left, and that my name would have to go on a long waiting list. As I was about to leave, the postmaster appeared in the doorway. He had overheard our conversation. “Wasn’t it you that wrote us that letter a year ago about delivering a special delivery to your home?”I said yes. “Well, you certainly are going to have a box in this post office if we have to make one for you. You don’t know what a letter like that means to us. We usually get nothing but complaints.” 像大多数人，我长大看待生命是一个过程获得。直到我在30月底，我作出这一重要发现：给予，距离使我们的生活如此更令人兴奋的。您不必担心如果缺乏资金。这是我尝试让-消失。如果一个主意，可以改善窗口显示一个闪烁附近商店给我，我的步骤，并提出上述建议的仓库保管员。一发现我付出，离开是，它几乎是不可能放弃任何在这个世界上，没有得到回报，尽管返回往往在一个意想不到的形式。一个星期天上午，当地邮局作了重要特别

《材料成型及控制工程-专业英语阅读-》翻译

第一章材料及其性能 1。1金属和非金属 许多属性具有材料之一，其机械性能，在大多数情况下，是最重要的，因此，他们将在本书太多的考虑。所有关键部件和元件，其中一个高可靠性的要求，都是用金属制作的，而不是玻璃，塑料或石头。已升了SEC，金属的特点是金属键；在正离子占据晶格的网站和周围的电子气。所有非金属离子和共价键。这些类型的债券是刚性的，是由于两个不同的电荷离子的静电引力。由于金属键，金属塑性变形能力和自我强化的塑性变形。因此，如果在一个物质或者元素的形状是这样，有应力集中的缺陷，在这些点上的应力可以达到一个巨大的价值，甚至导致开裂。但是，由于材料的塑性越高，金属在塑性变形这一点，说，在裂纹尖端，经过强化，骨折的过程中，涉及到一个逮捕。这不是在非金属发生。他们是不可能的塑性变形和自我强化；因此，裂缝将尽快在缺损的尖端的应力超过一定值时发生。这些事实说明为什么金属是可靠的结构材料和不可超越的非金属材料。 1。2铁合金 以上的人类使用的金属材料，重量90%铁合金。这代表了范围广泛的组织工程材料的一个巨大的家庭及相关性质。工程设计要求结构承重或电力传输大多数涉及铁合金。作为一个实际问题，这些合金分为基于碳在合金成分两大类。钢通常包含在0。05和2重量%的碳。铸铁通常含有2和4.5重量%的碳之间。在钢的范畴，我们应当区分是否显着量的合金元素碳以外的使用。的组合物的5重量%的总的非碳的加入将作为低合金高合金钢之间的边界。这些合金元素都经过精心挑选，因为他们总是带来大幅增加材料成本。只有在性能如强度高、耐蚀性能提高的改进证明他们是必不可少的。 2。钢的热处理的1原则 热处理在现代机械工程的作用不能被高估。在因热处理金属性能的变化是极为重要的意义。 2。1。1温度和时间 目的的任何热处理工艺是通过加热到指定的温度和随后的冷却产生在金属结构所需的变化。 因此，在热处理的主要因素是温度和时间，所以，任何热处理过程可以在温度时间（Tτ）坐标表示 热处理条件的特点是通过以下参数：加热温度T最大，即为合金金属加热的最高温度；在加热温度τH保温时间；加热速率νH和冷却速率 如果加热（或冷却）是在一个恒定的速率，温度时间关系会以各自的角度倾斜的直线描述。 用不同加热（或冷却）率，实际利率应归功于给定的温度，更严格，温度和时间的无限变化，温度在时间上的第一衍生物：ν行为= dt的/ Dτ 热处理是一个复杂的过程，包括多个加热阶段，中断或分步加热（冷却），冷却到零度以下的温度，等。任何热处理过程可以由温度时间图坐标描述。 2。1。2奥氏体的形成 珠光体向奥氏体转变只发生在平衡临界点在一个非常缓慢的加热如下的Fe-C相图。一般情况下，转型是弱智，导致过热，即发生在温度略高于Fe-C图表示。

科技英语阅读翻译

科技英语阅读翻译 Company Document number：WUUT-WUUY-WBBGB-BWYTT-1982GT

ⅢT r a n s l a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s i n t o C h i n e s e(20%)（1）He is best known for coining the term fractal to describe phenomena (such as coastlines, snowflakes, mountains and trees) whose patterns repeat themselves at smaller and smaller scales. (2) To explain these puzzling findings, some scientists have revived an old idea of Einstein’s that had been discarded as false: that the vacuum of space has energy in it that acts repulsively and accelerates the expansion of the universe. (3) New language that seemed to assert Facebook’s “irrevocable” right to retain and use a member’s personal information, even after the member had closed his or her Facebook account, deserved a little more editing. (4) The tenor of our time appears to regard history as having ended, with pronouncements from many techno-pundits claiming that the Internet is revolutionary and changes everything. (5) As a by-product of an industry that exists all over the world-the stalks that remain after grain has been harvested-straw also helpfully soaks up carbon from the atmosphere and locks it in, so long as it is not allowed to decompose. Ⅲ Translate the following sentences into Chinese（20%） （1）The problem in the paradox, he reasoned, is that we are confusing a description of sets of numbers with a description of sets of sets of numbers.

英语阅读理解带翻译范文生命之坚持

最新英语阅读理解带翻译范文:生命之 坚持 Some people insist that only today and tomorrow matter. But how much poorer we would be if we really lived by that rule! So much of what we do today is frivolous and futile and soon forgotten. So much of what we hope to do tomorrow never happens. The past is the bank in which we store our most valuable possession: the memories that give meaning and depth to our lives. Those who truly treasure the past will not bemoan the passing of the good old days, because days enshrined in memory are never lost. Death itself is powerless to still a remembered voice or erase a remembered smile. And for one boy who is now a man, there is a pond which neither time nor tide can change, where he can still spend a quiet hour in the sun. 一些人坚持认为只有今日与明日最重要。可要按这条规则来生活的话，我们将会变得更加可怜。今天我们所做之事有多少是琐碎无功的，很快就被人遗忘.又有多少我们明天要为之事将会成为泡影。过去是一所银行。我们将最可贵的财富——记忆珍藏其中，这些记忆赋予我们生命的意义和厚度。真正珍惜过去之人不会为美好时光逝去而哀叹。那些珍藏于记忆的时光是永远不会消失的。死亡本身也无法止住记忆中的声音，或擦除记忆中的微笑。对于已经长大成人的小男孩来说，那儿将会有一个池塘。它不会因时间和潮汐而改变，可以让他大继续在阳光下享受静谧的时光。

最新整理英语阅读理解带翻译篇资料

英语阅读理解带翻译10篇：给予 Like most people, I was brought up to look upon life as a process of getting. It was not until in my late thirties that I made this important discovery: giving-away makes life so much more exciting. You need not worry if you lack money. This is how I experimented with giving-away. If an idea for improving the window display of a neighborhood store flashes to me, I step in and make the suggestion to the storekeeper. One discovery I made about giving-away is that it is almost impossible to give away anything in this world without getting something back, though the return often comes in an unexpected form. One Sunday morning the local post office delivered an important special delivery letter to my home, though it was addressed to me at my office. I wrote the postmaster a note of appreciation. More than a year later I needed a post-office box for a new business I was starting. I was told at the window that there were no boxes left, and that my name would have to go on a long waiting list. As I was about to leave, the postmaster appeared in the doorway. He had overheard our conversation. “Wasn’t it you that wrote us that letter a year ago about delivering a special delivery to your home?”I said yes. “Well, you certainly are going to have a box in this post office if we have to make one for you. You don’t

专业英语阅读 翻译文章

C o m m e n c e m e n t o f t h e Commercial Operation of 600M W U n i t , "H i ro n o N o. 5Thermal Power Station of The Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc." Commercial operation of The Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc. Hirono No. 5 Thermal Power Station commenced in July 2004. This plant is a 600 MW coal-fired supercritical power plant. The main line-up of the plant, which features a steam turbine and a boiler, are supplied by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. (MHI). MHI set up this plant with a range of such key equipment along with ancillary facilities such as control systems, a flue gas treatment system, a wastewater treatment system, and stacks. This report gives a brief overview of the advanced technologies applied to the steam turbine and boiler of this plant supplied by MHI. 1. Introduction The Hirono No. 5 Thermal Power Station began com-mercial operation in July 2004. It is a 600 MW coal-fired,supercritical power plant that operates under the high-est global standards for steam conditions (24.5MPa x 600/600o C). The steam turbine has various advanced MHI tech-nologies, including the first 600 MW class two-casing turbine, high- and intermediate-pressure combined cas-ing developed by utilizing high temperature materials and cooling structures to cope with the ultra supercritical steam condition, 48 inch steel integral shroud blade (ISB), a new type of condenser, and a single shell deaerator cum storage tank. The boiler adopted in this plant has MHI's advanced technologies. They are reduced emission of NOx and unburned carbon with the A-PM burner and MRS pul-verizer. In addition, the vertical waterwall furnace that uses high temperature compatible materials and rifled tubes are adopted. Further, the plant is very much streamlined through the use of such simple systems and equipment as de-scribed below: (1) unification of air duct and flue gas duct into a single line through the adoption of a maximum capacity class fan, (2) unification of all feed water heaters into a single line, (3) unification of circulating water pumps into a single line, and (4) adoption of a plant starting system that does not rely on the boiler circulating pump. Since the plant is located in a narrow site adjacent to existing units operated using oil and gas, the overall arrangement of the plant has been improved by consult-ing with the Owner and is arranged in a more compact manner. Advanced MHI technologies have also been adopted in ancillary facilities. This includes the use of a dry se-lective catalytic NOx removal system, a high performance flue gas treatment system based on the harmonious de-sign of a double contact flow scrubber type flue gas desulfurization system with a low-low temperature dry electrostatic precipitator, an overall waste water treat-ment system, and self-supporting group stacks. In this way, MHI has drawn upon all of its competencies in es-tablishing this plant. 2. Steam turbine Figure 1Figure 1 shows an external view of the Hirono No. 5 steam turbine. Fig. 1 View of the 600 MW Hirono No.5 steam turbine HIROMASA MOMMA*1 TAKAYUKI SUTO*1RYUJI IWAMOTO*3 JUNICHI ISHIGURO*1TOSHIHIRO MIYAWAKI*2TSUYOSHI NAKAHARA*4