机械工程力学专业英语翻译
4 Overview of Engineering Mechanics（工程力学概况）
(1) Ideally, however, every such item has been designed according to some set of “functional requirements” as perceived by the designers-that is, it has been designed so as to answer the question, “E xactly what function should it perform?” In the world of engineering, the major function frequently is to support some type of loading due to weight, inertia, pressure, etc. From the beams in our homes to the wings of an airplane, there must be an appropriate melding of materials, dimensions, and fastenings to produce structures that will perform their functions reliably for a reasonable cost over a reasonable lifetime.
然而，在理想的情况下，每一件产品都是设计人员根据对某些“功能要求”的理解而设计出来的，也就是说，在设计过程中，应该回答这样的问题，即“它应该具有哪种确切的功能？”在工程领域，主要功能通常是承受由于重力，惯性力，压力等作用的一些类型的载荷。从我们居住房屋的梁到飞机机翼，都必须有一个适当的材料，尺寸，在较合理地寿命基础上具有较合理地成本，并能可靠地完成其功能的产品结构连接的组合。
(2) In any" real" problem there is never sufficient good,useful information;we seldom know the actual loads and operating conditions with any precision, and the analysis are seldom exact.While our mathematics may be precise,the overall analysis is generally only approximate,and different skilled people can obtain different solutions.In the study of engineering mechanics,most of the problems will be sufficiently "idealized“ to permit unique solutions ,but is should be clear that the ”real word " is far less idealized ,and that you usually will have to preform some idealization in order to obtain a solution.
对于任何实际的问题，总是缺乏足够完整和有用的信息。我们很少准确的知道实际载荷和工作状态，因此，所做的分析工作也很少是精确地。虽然我们的数学可以准确，全面的分析一般只能近似，而且不同技术水平的人能得到不同的解。在工程力学研究领域，大多数问题要想得到唯一解就要充分的理想化，但应该清楚，“现实世界”远非理想化程度，因此为了得到问题的解决方案不得不进行一些理想化假设。
(3) In engineering mechanics, we will appreciate the various type of approximations that are inherent in any real problem: 在工程力学中，我们在处理现实问题会采用各种各样的近似法。
(4)Primarily, we will be discussing things which are in “equilibrium”, i. e., not accelerating. However, if we look closely enough, everything is accelerating. We will consider many structural members to be “weightless”–but they never are. We will deal with forces that act at a “point”, but all forces act over an area. We will consider some parts to be “rigid”–but all bodies will deform under load.
首先，我们将要讨论处于“均衡”的事情，也就是说，不是加速的事情。但是，如果我们仔细观察，一切事情都是加速的。我们会认为许多结构单元是无质量的，但情况从来不是这样的。我们会处理作用在某个点上的力，但所有力都作用在某个区域上。我们将考虑某些零件是“刚性的”，但是所有机构都将在负载下变形。
6 Shaft Design（轴设计）
(5)If a shaft carries several gears or pulleys, different sections of the shaft will be subjected to different torques, because the total power delivered to the shaft is taken off piecemeal at various points. Figure 6.1 shows a shaft with an
input at one location (point A) and several outputs (points B,C,and D) on either side of the input .Gears or pulleys can be used to supply power to the shaft or to take power off the shaft. Hence one must note the amount of torque on each part of the shaft. Then study the distribution of the bending moment, preferably sketching( freehand is all right) the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
如果一个轴上装有几个齿轮或者皮带轮，轴的不同截面将受到不同的扭矩，因为输入到轴上的动力是由几个传动件输出的。图6.1表示了一个输入点A和几个在输入点两侧的点BCD。因此，必须要标注出
轴的各个部分承受的扭矩。然后研究弯矩的分布，最好画出剪力图和弯矩图。（徒手画也行）
（6）From this preliminary examination, which is a problem in mechanics, we note the section where the bending moment is a maximum and the section where the torque is a maximum. If these maximums occur at the same section, the diameter needed for that section is determined- and used for the entire shaft when the diameter is to be constant. If the maximums do not occur at the same section, determine the diameter for the section of maximum torque and also for the section of maximum bending moment, and use the larger value. 从初步的力学分析中，我们标示出弯矩和扭矩的最大的截面。如果这些最大值发生在同一截面，那么那段
截面所需要的直径也就确定了，当整根轴需要同样直径那么就取最大值。如果最大值不发生在同一截面，
那么比较两个最值处所确定的直径太小，取较大的作为轴的直径。
（7）Deflection（扰度）is a significant consideration in the design of shafts. Criteria for the limiting torsional deflection vary from 0.25 degree per meter of length for machinery shafts to 1 degree per meter or 1 degree in a length of 20 diameters for transmission shafting（轴系）. Even short shafts become special problems in rigidity when the load is applied in impulses, as on an automobile crankshaft. The impulses produce a torsional vibration, usually compensated（补偿）by torsional-vibration dampers in an automotive engine.
偏转在轴的设计中有重要的意义。对于机床主轴来说，许用扭转角为每米0.25度，对于传动轴来说，许用扭转角为每米1度或长度为直径的20倍时1度。当载荷存在冲击时，甚至短轴在刚度上也成为了一个特殊的问题，例如汽车上的曲轴。这个冲击产生了一个扭转振动，在汽车发动机中通常是由汽车上的扭振阻尼器来补偿的。
（8）Data on permissible values of deflections are rare, probable because the range of values would be large and each situation has its own peculiarities. An old rule of thumb（经验法则）for transmission shafting is that the deflection should not exceed 0.0005L, where L is the shaft length between supports; although greater stiffness may be desired. Preferably, on transmission shafts, the pulleys and gears should be located close to bearings in order to minimize moments.Excessive lateral shaft deflection can hamper gear performance and cause objectionable noise.The associated angular deflection can be very destructive to non-self-aligning bearings. Self-aligning bearings (Fig 6.4)may eliminate this trouble if the deflection is otherwise acceptable.
准许的偏差的数值很少，可能是因为数值的范围大并且每种情况都有其独特性，根据以往的经验，传动轴的偏差不允许超过0.0005L。L表示支撑端面之间轴的长度，尽管需要更高的刚度。最理想的情况是，在传动轴上，把齿轮，滑轮安装在轴承附近以便减小力矩。轴横向上过度偏转会妨碍齿轮的性能，从而引起噪声。相同的，偏转角会破坏非调心轴承。如果偏转在其他方面能够接受，调心轴承能够消除这个问题。
8 Belt Drives and Chain Drives （带传动和链传动）
（9）In addition to gears, belts and chains are in widespread use. Belts and chains represent the major types of flexible power transmission elements. Figure.8.1 shows a typical industrial application of these elements combined with a gear-type speed reducer(减速器). This application illustrates where belts, gear drives, and chains are each used to best advantage（以最好的方式）除了齿轮之外，皮带、链也被广泛应用。带传动、链传动代表挠性动力传动元件的主要类型。图8.1
显示这些构件和齿轮减速器结合一个典型的工业应用。图中带传动，齿轮传动及链传动的布置都充分发挥了各自的优点。
（10）Rotary ,power is usually developed by the electric motor, but motors typically operate at too high a speed and deliver too low a torque to be appropriate for the final drive application. For a given power transmission, the torque is increased in proportion to the amount that rotational speed is reduced. So some speed reduction is often desirable. In general, belt drives are applied where the rotational speeds are relatively high, as on the first stage of speed reduction from an electric motor or engine. A smaller driving pulley is attached to the motor shaft, while a larger diameter pulley is attached to a parallel shaft that operates at a correspondingly lower speed. Pulleys for belt drives are also called sheaves. The linear speed of a belt is usually 10-30m/s, which results in relatively low tensile forces in the belt.
转缸式发动机是由电力马达发展而来的，但是电动机通常运转在很高的速度而且输出的扭矩又太小
以至于最终传动的应用不匹配。对于一个给点的能量传递，扭矩值增加和转速的降低是成比例的。因此一些减速技术往往是可取的。一般来说，带传动应用在转速相对比较高的场合，一级减速是从电动机或马达上的直接减速。直径小的主动带轮连接到电动机主轴，而直径大的皮带轮被连接到转速较低的一个平行轴上。带传动的皮带轮也被称为V轮。带传动的线速度通常是10-30米每秒，也导致了作用在皮带上的拉力相对较小。
（11）These are four main belt types: flat, round, V, and synchronous(同步带). Flat and round belts may be used for long center distances between the pulleys in a belt drive. On the other hand, V and synchronous belts are employed for limited shorter center distance. Excluding synchronous belts, there is some slip between the belt and the pulley, which is usually made of cast iron or steel.
这是四个主要带传动类型：平带、圆带、V带和同步带。在带传动中，平带和圆带可以用于中心距离较大的两个带轮之间。另一方面，V和同步带是用于中心距较短的两带轮之间。除同步带之外，在皮带和带轮之间存在滑动，带轮通常用铸铁或钢制成的。
（12）A widely used type of belt, particularly in industrial drives and vehicular applications, is the V-belt drive.(Fig.8.2).Another type of V-belt drive is the poly V-belt drive(Fig 8.3). The V-shape causes the belt to wedge tightly into the groove of the sheave, increasing friction and allowing high torques to be transmitted before sloping occurs.
V型带传动是一种被广泛使用的类型的带，尤其是在工业传动和车辆应用上。另一种V带类型是楔带传动。V型面将皮带紧紧嵌到皮带轮的沟槽内，增加了摩擦力并且允许传送更大的扭矩而不发生打滑。（13）Flat belt drives produce very little noise and absorb more vibration from the system than either V-belt or other drives. A flat belt drive has an efficiency of around 98%, which is nearly the same as for a gear drive. A V-belt drive can
transmit more power then a flat belt drive .However, the efficiency of a V-belt drive varies between 70% and 96%.
平带传动几乎不产生噪声、并且从系统中比V带传动或其他传动吸收更多的振动。平带传动效率约为98%，几乎和齿轮传动效率相同。V带传动能够传递比平带更大的力。然而，V带传动的效率在70%至96%之间变化。
（14）A synchronous belt, sometimes called timing belt, has evenly spaced teeth on the inside circumference (see Fig.8.4). A synchronous belt does not slip and hence transmits power at a constant angular velocity ratio.
同步带有时被称为同步齿形带，在内部圆周表面安有齿。同步带不会打滑，因此以恒定的角速度传递动力。
(15)However, if very large ratios of speed reduction are required in the drive, gear reducers are desirable because they can typically accomplish large reductions in a rather small package. The output shaft of the gear-type speed reducer is generally at low speed and high torque. If both speed and torque are satisfactory for the application. It could be directly coupled to the driven machine.
然而，如果在传动中需要较大的减速比，齿轮减速是很好的，因为他们能在相对小的空间内完成较大的减速。齿轮减速器的终端轴通常是高扭矩并且低速的。如果对速度和转矩的应用都符合要求，它可以直接连接到驱动的机器。
（16）Since gear reducers are available only at discrete reduction ratios, the output must often be reduced more before meeting the requirements of the machine. At the low-speed, high-torque condition, chain drives become desirable. The high torque causes high tensile forces to be developed in the chain. The elements of the chain are typically metal, and they are sized to withstand the high forces. When transmitting power between rotating shafts, the links of chains are engaged in toothed wheels called sprockets to provide positive (no slip) drive. Fig.8.5 shows a typical chain drive.
由于齿轮减速器只能提供不连续的减速比，所以其输出的转速必须再降低才能满足机器的需求。在低速、大扭矩情况下，链传动成为可取的。大扭矩会引起大的拉伸力促使开发了链条。链条传动的构件通常是用金属制造的，能够承受较大的力。当在转轴之间传输能量的时候，链条由齿齿合称为链轮，它提供了强制传动。图8.5显示了典型的链条传动。
16 Wear and Lubrication（磨损和润滑）
（17）Wear can be defined as the progressive loss of material from the operating surface of a body occurring as a result of relative motion at the surface. The problem of wear arises wherever there are load and motion between surface, and is therefore important in engineering practice, often being the major factor governing life and performance of machine components .The major types of wear are describe next:
磨损是由于相对运动使得零件工作表面材料逐渐丧失的现象。磨损发生在有负载还有表面接触且运动的地方，是影响机器寿命和性能的主要因素，因此在工程实践中是非常重要的。磨损的主要类型有：
24 Drilling Operations（钻孔操作）
（18）Drilling Drilling operations can be carried out by using either electric hand drills or drilling machines.The latter differ in shape and
size .Nevertheless,the tool always rotates around its axis while the workpiece
is kept firmly fixed .This is contrary to the drilling operation on a lathe,where the workpiece is held in and rotates with the chuck .Following is a survey of the commonly used types of drilling machines .
钻孔操作可以通过使用手电钻或钻床实现。后者在形状和尺寸上不同。但是，刀具总是绕着它的轴线旋转而工件是牢牢固定的。这和车床上的钻孔操作是相反的，工件的放置位置和卡盘的旋转。以下是常用的钻床种类。
（19）Bench-type Drilling Machines Bench-type drilling machines
are general purpose ,small machine tools that are usually placed on
benches .This type of drilling machine includes an electric motor as the source of motion,which is transmitted via pulleys and belts to the spindle ,where the tool is mounted (see Fig .24.4).The feed is manually generated by lowering a feed lever ,which is designed to lower (or raise ) the spindle .The workpiece is mounted on the machine table ,although a special vise is sometimes used to hold the workpiece .
台式钻床：台式钻床是一种通用钻床，小的加工工具通常安放在工作台上。这种钻床有一个电动机作为动力源，运动经由皮带和带轮传到安放刀具的主轴上。进给量由人工通过调节手柄改变，手柄设计来降低或升高主轴的。工件安装在工作台上，尽管有时一个特制的虎钳用来固定工件。
（20）Upright Drilling Machines Depending upon the size ,upright drilling machine tools can be used for light ,medium ,and even relatively heavy workpieces .It is basically similar to bench -type machines ,the main difference being a longer cylindrical column fixed to the base .Along that column is an additional ,sliding table for fixing the workpiece which can be locked in position at that for the bench -type drilling machines .
立式钻床：基于尺寸的机床，立式钻床刀具可以用于轻型、中型、甚至重型工件。立式钻床类似于台式钻床，主要区别在于立式钻床固定在底板上的圆柱形立柱更长。用以固定工件的滑动工作台可沿立柱上下滑动，并可以锁紧在任一需要的高度。这种钻床需要的功率比台式钻床要大。
（21）Radial Drills A radial drill is particularly suitable for drilling holes in large and heavy workpieces that are inconvenient to mount on the table of an upright drilling machine .A radial drilling machine has a main column ,which is fixed to the base .The cantilever guide arm ,which carries the drilling head can be raised or lowered along the column and clamped at any desired position (see Fig 24.5).The drilling head slides along the arm and provides rotary motion and axial feed motion .Again ,the cantilever guide arm can be
swung ,thus enabling the tool to be moved in all directions according to a cyindrical coordinate system.
摇臂钻床：摇臂钻床尤其适合于在大型的重工件上钻孔，因为这些工件不方便的安装到立式钻床的工作台上。摇臂钻床有一个主要的立柱固定在基部。携带钻头的悬臂引导手臂，能够沿着立柱升高或降低，夹紧在任意位置。这个钻头沿引导臂滑动，提供旋转运动和轴向进给运动。此外，这个悬臂引导臂可以摇摆，因此使刀具可以根据柱面坐标系统沿不同方向运动。
25 Machining （机械加工）
(22)Automatic Screw Machines Generally，automatic screw machines fall into two categories；single—spindle automatics and multiple-spindle automatics.自动螺纹车床通常被分为两种类型：单轴自动和多轴自动车床。
Originally designed for rapid，automatic production of screws and similar threaded parts，the automatic screw machine has long since exceeded the confines of this narrow field，and today plays a vital role in the mass production of a variety of precision parts．自动螺纹车床最初是被用来对螺钉和类似的带有螺纹的零件进行自动化和快速加工的。但是，这种车床的用途早就超过了这个狭窄的范围。现在它在许多种类的精密零件的大批量生产中起着重要作用。
26 Machine Tools（机床）
(23).Lathes Lathes are generally considered to be the oldest machine tools and were developed in the 1750s. The basic operations carried out on a lathe are turning , boring, and facing.
车床车床通常被认为是最古老的机床，并在1750s产生。车床上进行基本操作有车削，镗，和端
面车削。
(24)The basic components of the most common lathe (engine lathe) are the bed, headstock, tailstock, and carriage(see Fig.23.1). One end of the
workpiece is clamped in a chuck (see Fig.23.2)that is mounted on the spindle, the spindle rotates in the headstock. The others end of the workpiece is supported by the tailstock. The headstock contains the drive gears for the spindle speeds, and through suitable gearing and the feed rod, drives the carriage and cross slide assembly. The carriage provides motion parallel to the axis of rotation, and the corss slide provides motion normal to it. A cutting tool, attached to a tool post and to the carriage, removes material by traveling along the bed. The cutting operation is performed at a certain desired peripheral speed of the workpiece, feed rate, and depth of cut.
最常见的车床（普通车床）的基本组成部分是床身，床头，尾座和溜板箱。工件的一端由卡盘夹紧，
卡盘安装在主轴上，主轴在主轴箱内旋转。工件的另一端是由尾座支撑。主轴箱内有驱动齿轮，驱动齿轮
不仅给主轴提供各种转速，而且通过传动装置及光杠驱动溜板箱及横刀架。溜板箱提供平行与旋转轴的运
动，交叉滑动提供了正常的运动。切削刀具，连接到一个刀架和溜板箱上，沿床身消除材料。车削加工时,
工件有一定的圆周线速度，车刀有一定的进给速度和切削深度。
(25) A further development is the automatic lathe .The movements and controls are actuated by various mechanical means ,such as cams and numerical and computer control,thus reducing labor or requiring less skilled labor.未来的发展是自动车床。通过各种机械手段，促使运动和控制更加精确，如凸轮和数控和计算机控制，从而减轻了工人的劳动或要求不太熟练的劳动力。
28 Milling Operations（铣床）
(26)After lathes, milling machines are the most widely used for manufacturing applications. In milling, the workpiece is fed into a rotating milling cutter, which is a multi-edge tool as shown in Fig.28.1. Metal removal is achieved through combining the rotary motion of the milling cutter and linear motion of the workpiece simultaneously.
除了车床，铣床是在制造业使用最为广泛的。铣削如图28.1所示，工件做直线进给运动时，铣刀做旋转运动进行铣削加工，铣刀是多刃刀具。去除金属是通过铣刀和工件同时直线运动相结合成旋转运动完成的。
(27)As far as the directions of cutter rotation and workpiece feed are concerned, milling is performed by either of the following two methods.
对于刀具旋转方向和工件进给方向而言，铣削是通过以下两种方法之一完成的。
(28)Up milling (conventional milling).In up milling the cutting tool rotates in the opposite direction to the table movement, the chip starts as zero thickness and gradually increases to the maximum size as shown in Fig.28.2(a). This tends to lift the workpiece from the table. There is a possibility that the cutting tool will rub the workpiece before starting the removal. However, the machining process involves no impact loading, thus ensuring smoother operation of machine tool.逆铣。逆铣刀具的转向和工作台的移动方向相反，碎片厚度从零开始并逐渐增加到最大厚度，如图28.2所示。这有让工件离开工作台的趋势。有一种可能就是刀具在开始移动之前将摩擦工件。然而，加工过程中不包括冲击载荷，从而确保机床的平滑操作。(29)Down milling (climb milling). In down milling the cutting tool rotates in the same direction as that of the table movement, and the chip starts as maximum thickness and goes to zero thickness gradually as shown in Fig.28.2
顺铣。在顺铣中铣刀旋转方向和工作台的移动方向相同，碎片从最大厚度逐渐变为零，如图28.2（b）所示。
(30)The advantages of this method include higher quality of the machined surface and easier clamping of workpiece, since cutting forces act downward. Down milling also allows greater feeds per tooth and longer cutting life between regrinds than up milling. But, it cannot be used for machining castings (see Fig .28.3)or hot rolled steel, since the hard outer scale will damage the cutter.这种方法的优点是切削力下降能获得更高品质的加工表面同时工件的装夹更简单。顺铣比逆铣允许更大的进给齿和拥有更长的刀具寿命在重新研磨。但是，它不能被用来加工铸件或热轧钢，因为硬的外层氧化皮将损坏刀具。
35 Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes（特种加工工艺）
(32)Approximately one—half of the nontraditional manufacturing processes are available with computer control of the process parameters ，The use of computers lends simplicity to processes that people may be unfamiliar with， and thereby accelerates acceptance．Additionally ，computer control assures reliability and repeatability， which also accelerates acceptance and implementation.大约半数的特种加工工艺目前采用计算
机控制加工参数。使用计算机可使人们所不熟悉的加工过程变得简单，因而加大了人们对这种技术的接
受程度。此外，计算机控制可以保证可靠性和重复性，这也加大了人们对这种技术的接受程度及其应用范围。
（31）Currently，nontraditional processes possess virtually unlimited capabilities when compared with conventional processes，except for volumetric material removal rates．Great advances have been made in the past few years in increasing the removal rates of some of these processes，and there is no reason to believe that this trend will not continue into the future．目前，同常规工艺相比，除了材料的体积去除率外，特种加工
工艺几乎具有不受限制的能力。在过去几年中，某些特种加工工艺在提高材料去除率方面有了了很大
的进展，而且有理由相信这种趋势在将来也会继续下去。
37 Mechanical Vibrations（机械振动）
(33) Long-term exposure of a mechanical system to vibrations of frequencies away from resonance can also cause damage through the mechanism of fatigue.Thus ,if a mechanical component such as a spring is subjected to repetitive or cyclical applications of stress levels much lower than the ultimate strength,it will fracture after a large number of repetitions of this
stress.Indeed,if the number of cycles of stress is increased,the amplitude of the stress needed eventually to cause fracture becomes lower.The underlying mechanism in fatigue appears to be the gradual unzipping of intermolecular bonds starting from a defect or weakness in the molecular structure.
即使机械系统长期处于振动频率远离其共振频率的振动环境中，也会使系统产生疲劳破坏。因为像弹簧这样的机械零件，在比极限强度低很多的重复应力或周期性应力的作用下，经过很多次的重复作用之后也将发生断裂。实际上如果增加应力周期的次数，那么，能够最终引起断裂的应力值将减小。疲劳的基本理论认为，分子之间的键是从分子结构有缺陷或者薄弱的地方被逐渐拉开的。
力学专业英语部分翻译孟庆元
1、应力和应变 应力和应变的概念可以通过考虑一个棱柱形杆的拉伸这样一个简单的方式来说明。一个棱柱形的杆是一个遍及它的长度方向和直轴都是恒定的横截面。在这个实例中，假设在杆的两端施加有轴向力F，并且在杆上产生了均匀的伸长或者拉紧。 通过在杆上人工分割出一个垂直于其轴的截面mm，我们可以分离出杆的部分作为自由体【如图1(b)】。在左端施加有拉力P，在另一个端有一个代表杆上被移除部分作用在仍然保存的那部分的力。这些力是连续分布在横截面的，类似于静水压力在被淹没表面的连续分布。 力的集度，也就是单位面积上的力，叫做应力，通常是用希腊字母，来表示。假设应力在横截面上是均匀分布的【如图1(b)】，我们可以很容易的看出它的合力等于集度，乘以杆的横截面积A。而且，从图1所示的物体的平衡，我们可以看出它的合力与力P必须的大小相等，方向相反。因此，我们可以得出 等式(1)可以作为棱柱形杆上均匀应力的方程。这个等式表明应力的单位是，力除以面积。当杆被力P拉伸时，如图所示，产生的应力是拉应力，如果力在方向是相反，使杆被压缩，它们就叫做压应力。 使等式(1)成立的一个必要条件是，应力，必须是均匀分布在杆的横截面上。如果轴向力P作用在横截面的形心处，那么这个条件就实现了。当力P 没有通过形心时，杆会发生弯曲，这就需要更复杂的分析。目前，我们假设所有的轴向力都是作用在横截面的形心处，除非有相反情况特别说明。同样，除非另有说明，一般也假设物体的质量是忽略的，如我们讨论图1的杆一样。
轴向力使杆产生的全部伸长量，用希腊字母δ表示【如图1(a)】，单位长度的伸长量，或者应变，可以用等式来决定。 L是杆的总长。注意应变ε是一个无量纲的量。只要应变是在杆的长度方向均匀的，应变就可以从等式(2)中准确获得。如果杆处于拉伸状态，应变就是拉应变，代表材料的伸长或者 ，那么应变就是压应变，这也就意味着杆上临近的横截面是互相靠近的。 当材料的应力和应变显示的是线性关系时，也就是线弹性。这对多数固体材料来说是极其重要的性质，包括多数金属，塑料，木材，混凝土和陶瓷。处于拉伸状态下，杆的应力和应变间的线性关系可以用简单的等式来表示。E 是比例常数，叫做材料的弹性模量。 注意E和应力有同样的单位。在英国科学家托马斯·杨(1773 ~ 1829)研究杆的弹性行为之后，弹性模量有时也叫做杨氏模量。对大多数材料来说，压缩状态下的弹性模量与处于拉伸时的弹性模量的一样的。 2、拉伸应力应变行为 一个特殊材料中应力和应变的关系是通过拉伸测试来决定的。材料的试样通常是圆棒的形式，被安置在测试机上，承受拉力。当载荷增加时，测量棒上的力和棒的伸长量。力除以横截面积可以得出棒的应力，伸长量除以伸长发生方向的长度可以得出应变。通过这种方式，材料的完整应力应变图就可以得到。 图1所示的是结构钢的应力应变图的典型形状，轴向应变显示在水平轴，对应的应力以纵坐标表示为曲线OABCDE。从O点到A点，应力和应变之间是直接成比例的，图形也是线性的。过了A点，应力应变间的线性关系就不存
各学科名称英文翻译
各个学科名称英文翻译 哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence 民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law ) 诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws 经济法学Science of Economic Law 环境与资源保护法学Science of Environment and Natural Resources Protection Law 国际法学(含国际公法学、国际私法学、国际经济法学、) International law (including International Public law, International Private Law and International Economic Law) 军事法学Science of Military Law
机械工程英语翻译
Unit1 1、What is the difference between an alloy and a pure metal? Pure metals are elements which come from a particular area of the periodic table. Examples of pure metals include copper in electrical wires and aluminum in cooking foil and beverage cans. 合金与纯金属的区别是什么？纯金属是在元素周期表中占据特定位置的元素。例如电线中的铜和制造烹饪箔及饮料罐的铝。 Alloys contain more than one metallic element. Their properties can be changed by changing the elements present in the alloy. Examples of metal alloys include stainless steel which is an alloy of iron, nickel, and chromium; and gold jewelry which usually contains an alloy of gold and nickel. 合金包含不止一种金属元素。合金的性质能通过改变其中存在的元素而改变。金属合金的例子有：不锈钢是一种铁、镍、铬的合金，以及金饰品通常含有金镍合金。 2、 Why are metals and alloys used? Many metals and alloys have high densities and are used in applications which require a high mass-to-volume ratio. 为什么要使用金属和合金？许多金属和合金具有高密度，因此被用在需要较高质量体积比的场合。 Some metal alloys,such as those based on aluminum, have low densities and are used in aerospace applications for fuel economy. Many alloys also have high fracture toughness, which means they can withstand impact and are durable. 某些金属合金，例如铝基合金，其密度低，可用于航空航天以节约燃料。许多合金还具有高断裂韧性，这意味着它们能经得起冲击并且是耐用的。 3、The atomic bonding of metals also affects their properties. In m etals, the outer valence electrons are shared among all atoms, and ar e free to travel everywhere. Since electrons conduct heat and electri city, metals make good cooking pans and electrical wires. 金属的原子连结对它们的特性也有影响。在金属内部，原子的外层阶电子由所有原子共享并能到处自由移动。由于电子能导热和导电，所以用金属可以制造好的烹饪锅和电线。 It is impossible to see through metals, since these valence electrons absorb any photons of light which reach the metal. No photons pass through. 因为这些阶电子吸收到达金属的光子，所以透过金属不可能看得见。没有光子能通过金属. 4、Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. 陶瓷和玻璃的特性高熔点、低密度、高强度、高刚度、高硬度、高耐磨性和
各专业课程英文翻译
各专业课程英文翻译(精心整理) 生物及医学专业课程汉英对照表 应用生物学 Applied Biology 医学技术 Medical Technology 细胞生物学 Cell Biology 医学 Medicine 生物学 Biology 护理麻醉学 Nurse Anesthesia 进化生物学 Evolutionary Biology 口腔外科学 Oral Surgery 海洋生物学 Marine Biology 口腔/牙科科学 Oral/Dental Sciences 微生物学 Microbiology 骨科医学 Osteopathic Medicine 分子生物学 Molecular Biology 耳科学 Otology 医学微生物学 Medical Microbiology 理疗学 Physical Therapy 口腔生物学 Oral Biology 足病医学 Podiatric Medicine 寄生物学 Parasutology 眼科学 Ophthalmology 植物生物学 Plant Physiology 预防医学 Preventive Medicine 心理生物学 Psychobiology 放射学 Radiology 放射生物学 Radiation Biology 康复咨询学 Rehabilitation Counseling 理论生物学 Theoretical Biology 康复护理学 Rehabilitation Nursing 野生生物学 Wildlife Biology 外科护理学 Surgical Nursing 环境生物学 Environmental Biology 治疗学 Therapeutics 运动生物学 Exercise Physiology 畸形学 Teratology 有机体生物学 Organismal Biology 兽医学 Veterinary Sciences 生物统计学 Biometrics 牙科卫生学 Dental Sciences 生物物理学 Biophysics 牙科科学 Dentistry 生物心理学 Biopsychology 皮肤学 Dermatology 生物统计学 Biostatistics 内分泌学 Endocrinology 生物工艺学 Biotechnology 遗传学 Genetics 生物化学 Biological Chemistry 解剖学 Anatomy 生物工程学 Biological Engineering 麻醉学 Anesthesia 生物数学 Biomathematics 临床科学 Clinical Science 生物医学科学 Biomedical Science 临床心理学 Clinical Psychology 细胞生物学和分子生物学 Celluar and Molecular Biology 精神病护理学 Psychiatric Nursing 力学专业 数学分析 Mathematical Analysis 高等代数与几何 Advanced Algebra and Geometry 常微分方程 Ordinary Differential Equation 数学物理方法 Methods in Mathematical Physics 计算方法 Numerical Methods 理论力学 Theoretical Mechanics 材料力学 Mechanics of Materials 弹性力学 Elasticity 流体力学 Fluid Mechanics 力学实验 Experiments in Solid Mechanics 机械制图 Machining Drawing 力学概论 Introduction to Mechanics 气体力学 Gas Dynamics 计算流体力学 Computational Fluid Mechanics 弹性板理论 Theory of Elastic Plates 粘性流体力学 Viscous Fluid Flow 弹性力学变分原理 Variational Principles inElasticity 有限元法 Finite Element Method 塑性力学 Introduction of Plasticity
大学各专业名称英文翻译(一)——工学_ENGINEERING
大学各专业名称英文翻译（一）——工学ENGINEERING 课程中文名称课程英文名称 高等数理方法Advanced Mathematical Method 弹塑性力学Elastic-Plastic Mechanics 板壳理论Theory of Plate and Shell 高等工程力学Advanced Engineering Mechanics 板壳非线性力学Nonlinear Mechanics of Plate and Shell 复合材料结构力学Structural Mechanics of Composite Material 弹性元件的理论及设计Theory and Design of Elastic Element 非线性振动Nonlinear Vibration 高等土力学Advanced Soil Mechanics 分析力学Analytic Mechanics 随机振动Random Vibration 数值分析Numerical Analysis 基础工程计算与分析Calculation and Analysis of Founda tion Engineering 结构动力学Structural Dynamics 实验力学Laboratory Mechanics 损伤与断裂Damage and Fracture 小波分析Wavelet Analysis 有限元与边界元分析方法Analytical Method of Finite Element and Boundary Element 最优化设计方法Optimal Design Method 弹性力学Elastic Mechanics 高层建筑基础Tall Building Foundation 动力学Dynanics 土的本构关系Soil Constitutive Relation 数学建模Mathematical Modeling 现代通信理论与技术Emerging Communications Theory and Technology 数字信号处理Digital Signal Processing 网络理论与多媒体技术Multi-media and Network Technology 医用电子学Electronics for Medicine 计算微电子学Computational Microelectronics 集成电路材料和系统电子学Material and System Electronics for In tegrated Circuits 网络集成与大型数据库Computer Network Integrating Technology and Large scale Database 现代数字系统Modern Digital System 微机应用系统设计Microcomputer Application Design 计算机网络新技术Modern Computer Network Technologies 网络信息系统Network Information System 图像传输与处理Image Transmission and Processing 图像编码理论Theory of Image Coding 遥感技术Remote Sensing Techniques 虚拟仪器系统设计Design of Virtual Instrument System 生物医学信号处理技术Signal Processing for Biology and Medicine 光纤光学Fiber Optics
机械工程专业英语翻译合集
1.我们可以把钢再次加热到临界温度以下的某一温度，然后在慢慢让其冷却。We can heat the steel again to a temperature below the critical temperature, then cool it slowly. 2.无论任何简单的机床，都是由单一元件即通称为机械零件或部件组成的。However simple, any machine is a combination of individual components generally referred to as machine elements or parts. 3.这些金属不都是好的导体。 All these metals are not good conductors. 4. 在做带电实验的时候，再怎么小心都不为过。 You can't be too careful in performing an experiment. 5.利用发电机可以把机械能转变成电能。 The mechanical energy can be changed back into electrical energy by means of a generator or dynamo. 6.假定电源输入的电压保持不变。 Assume that the voltage input of the power supply remains the same. 7.化石燃料是发电过程中最为频繁使用的能源。 Fossil fuels are most frequently used source daring the power generation process. 8单个机械零件的可靠性成为评估整台机器使用寿命的基本因素。 The individual reliability of machine elements becomes the basis for estimating the overall life 9.说我们生活在一个电子时代，这一点都不夸张。 It's no exaggeration to say that we live in an electronic age. 10.发动机的转速不应超过最大允许值。 Engine revolution should not exceed the maximum permissible. 11.如能从大型核电站获得成本极低的电力，电解氢的竞争能力就会增强。（Electrolytic hydrogen）。 If extremely low-cost power were ever to become available from large nuclear power plants, electrolytic hydrogen would become competitive. 12.电子技术提供了一种新的显示时间的方法。 A new way of displaying time has been given by electronics. 13.远距离输电需要高压，安全用电需要低压。 High voltage is necessary for long transmission line while low voltage for safe use. 14.铝的电阻大约是同等尺寸的铜的1.5倍。 The resistance of aluminum is approximately half again as great as that of copper for the same dimensions = size 15.In fact,it is impossible for no force to be exerted on a body,since in this world everything is subject to the for ce of gravity. 事实上，物体不受外力作用是不可能的，因为在这个世界上任何物体都要受到重力的作用。 16.In a thermal power plant,all the chemical energy is not
各专业的英文翻译剖析
哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence 民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law ) 诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws
机械工程专业英语 翻译
2、应力和应变 在任何工程结构中独立的部件或构件将承受来自于部件的使用状况或工作的外部环境的外力作用。如果组件就处于平衡状态,由此而来的各种外力将会为零,但尽管如此,它们共同作用部件的载荷易于使部件变形同时在材料里面产生相应的内力。 有很多不同负载可以应用于构件的方式。负荷根据相应时间的不同可分为: (a)静态负荷是一种在相对较短的时间内逐步达到平衡的应用载荷。 (b)持续负载是一种在很长一段时间为一个常数的载荷, 例如结构的重量。这种类型的载荷以相同的方式作为一个静态负荷; 然而,对一些材料与温度和压力的条件下,短时间的载荷和长时间的载荷抵抗失效的能力可能是不同的。 (c)冲击载荷是一种快速载荷(一种能量载荷)。振动通常导致一个冲击载荷, 一般平衡是不能建立的直到通过自然的阻尼力的作用使振动停止的时候。 (d)重复载荷是一种被应用和去除千万次的载荷。 (e)疲劳载荷或交变载荷是一种大小和设计随时间不断变化的载荷。 上面已经提到，作用于物体的外力与在材料里面产生的相应内力平衡。因此,如果一个杆受到一个均匀的拉伸和压缩，也就是说, 一个力,均匀分布于一截面,那么产生的内力也均匀分布并且可以说杆是受到一个均匀的正常应力,应力被定义为 应力==负载 P /压力 A, 因此根据载荷的性质应力是可以压缩或拉伸的,并被度量为牛顿每平方米或它的倍数。 如果一个杆受到轴向载荷，即是应力，那么杆的长度会改变。如果杆的初始长度L和改变量△L已知，产生的应力定义如下: 应力==改变长△L /初始长 L 因此应力是一个测量材料变形和无量纲的物理量 ,即它没有单位;它只是两个相同单位的物理量的比值。 一般来说,在实践中,在荷载作用下材料的延伸是非常小的, 测量的应力以*10-6的形式是方便的, 即微应变, 使用的符号也相应成为ue。 从某种意义上说，拉伸应力与应变被认为是正的。压缩应力与应变被认为是负的。因此负应力使长度减小。 当负载移除时，如果材料回复到初始的，无负载时的尺寸时，我们就说它是具有弹性的。一特定形式的适用于大范围的工程材料至少工程材料受载荷的大部分的弹性, 产生正比于负载的变形。由于载荷正比于载荷所产生的压力并且变形正比于应变, 这也说明,当材料是弹性的时候, 应力与应变成正比。因此胡克定律陈述, 应力正比于应变。 这定律服从于大部分铁合金在特定的范围内, 甚至以其合理的准确性可以假定适用于其他工程材料比如混凝土，木材，非铁合金。 当一个材料是弹性的时候，当载荷消除之后，任何负载所产生的变形可以完全恢复,没有永久的变形。
各专业的英文翻译
中国教育在线考研频道提供考研全方面信息指导及咨询服务，为您成功考研提供一切帮助。 哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence
机械工程英语翻译unit 1
Types of Materials 材料的类型 Materials may be grouped in several ways. Scientists often classify materials by their state: solid, liquid, or gas. They also separate them into organic (once living) and inorganic (never living) materials. 材料可以按多种方法分类。科学家常根据状态将材料分为：固体、液体或气体。他们也把材料分为有机材料(曾经有生命的)和无机材料(从未有生命的)。 For industrial purposes, materials are divided into engineering materials or nonengineering materials. Engineering materials are those used in manufacture and become parts of products. 就工业效用而言，材料被分为工程材料和非工程材料。那些用于加工制造并成为产品组成部分的就是工程材料。Nonengineering materials are the chemicals, fuels, lubricants, and other materials used in the manufacturing process, which do not become part of the product. 非工程材料则是化学品、燃料、润滑剂以及其它用于加工制造过程但不成为产品组成部分的材料。 Engineering materials may be further subdivided into: ①Metal ②Ceramics ③Composite ④Polymers, etc. 工程材料还能进一步细分为：①金属材料②陶瓷材料③复合材料④聚合材料，等等。 Metals and Metal Alloys 金属和金属合金 Metals are elements that generally have good electrical and thermal conductivity. Many metals have high
力学专业外文翻译
附录：外文翻译 5.1Introduction Cylindrical shells are used innuclear,fossil and petrochemical industries. They are also used in heat exchangers of the shell and tube type.Generally.These vessels are easy to fabricate and install and economical to maintain. The design procedures in pressure vessel codes for cylindrical shells are mostly based on linear elastic assumption,occasionally allowing for limited inelastic behavior over a localized region.The shell thickness is the major design parameter and is usually controlledby internal pressure and sometimes by external pressure which can produce buckling.Applied loads are also important in controlling thickness and so are the disconti-nuity and thermal stresses.The basic thicknesses of cylindrical shells are Based on simpli?ed stress analysis and allowable stress for the material of construction.There are some variations of the basic equations in various design codes.Some of the equations are based on thick-wall Lame equations.In this chapter such equations will be discussed.Also we shall discuss the case of cylindrical shells under external pressure where there is a propensity of buckling or collapse. 5.2 Thin-shell equations A shell is a curved plate-type structure.We shall limit our discussion to Shells of revolutions.Referring to Figure5.1 this is denoted by anangle ?,The meridional radius r1 and the conical radius r2,from the center line.The horizontal radius when the axis is vertical is r. If the shell thickness is t,with z being the coordinate across the thickness,following the convention of Flugge, We have the following stress resultants: ?-+ = 2 2 1 1) ( t t dz r z r N θ θ σ(5.1) ?-+ = 2 2 2 2) ( t t dz r z r N φ φ σ(5.2) ?-+ = 2 2 2 2) ( t t dz r z r N θφ θφ σ(5.3)
中文学科的英文翻译
中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 哲学Philosophy 马克思主义哲学Philosophy of Marxism 中国哲学Chinese Philosophy 外国哲学Foreign Philosophies 逻辑学Logic 伦理学Ethics 美学Aesthetics 宗教学Science of Religion 科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology 经济学Economics 理论经济学Theoretical Economics 政治经济学Political Economy 经济思想史History of Economic Thought 经济史History of Economic 西方经济学Western Economics 世界经济World Economics 人口、资源与环境经济学Population, Resources and Environmental Economics 应用经济学Applied Economics 国民经济学National Economics 区域经济学Regional Economics 财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation) 金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance) 产业经济学Industrial Economics 国际贸易学International Trade 劳动经济学Labor Economics 统计学Statistics 数量经济学Quantitative Economics 中文学科、专业名称英文学科、专业名称 国防经济学National Defense Economics 法学Law 法学Science of Law 法学理论Jurisprudence 法律史Legal History 宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law 刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence 民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law ) 诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws 经济法学Science of Economic Law 环境与资源保护法学Science of Environment and Natural Resources Protection Law 国际法学(含国际公法学、国际私法学、国际经济法学、) International law (including International Public law, International Private Law and International Economic Law) 军事法学Science of Military Law
机械工程专业英语第二版必考翻译(完整版)
1.With low-power machinery or vehicles the operator can usually apply sufficient force through a simple mechanical linkage from the pedle or handle to the stationary part of the brake. In many cases, however, this force must be multiplied by using an elaborate braking system.（P5）用低能机器或传力工具，操作者通过向踏板或把手的一个简单机械连接构件作用足够的力量到车闸固定的部分。大多数情况，然而，用一个详细（复杂）的车闸系统使这个力量成倍增加。 2. The fundamental principle involved is the use of compressed air acting through a piston in a cylinder to set block brakes on the wheels. The action is simultaneous o n the wheels of all the cars in the train. The compressed air is carried through a strong hose from car to car with couplings between cars; its release to all the separate block brake units, at the same time, is controlled by the engineer. (Braking Systems)（P5） 相关的基本原理是使用压缩气体，通过气缸内的活塞将闸块压在车轮起作用。列车的所有车厢上的车轮同时动作。压缩气体通过一个坚固的管道在由联轴器连接的车厢之间传输；工程师控制其在同一时间释放到所有独立的闸块单元。 3.When the brake pedal of an automobile is depressed, a force is applied to a piston in a master cylinder. The piston forces hydraulic fluid through metal tubing into a cylinder in each wheel where the fluid’s pressure moves two pistons that press the brake shoes against the drum. (Braking Systems)（P5） 当踩下汽车刹车的踏板，在主汽缸中的活塞上施加一个力。活塞驱动液压流体通过金属管道进入每个车轮气缸，在那里液压移动两个活塞将闸片压向轮圈。 4.Machinery ontology including mechanical rack, mechanical connections and mechanical transmission, which is the basis of mechanical-electrical integration, plays a role in supporting the other functional units of the system and transmitting motion and power. Compared to purely mechanical products, the performance and functionality of integration technology in electrical and mechanical systems have been improved a lot, which requires mechanical ontology to adapt its new status in mechanical structure, materials, processing technology, as well as the areas of geometry. Accordingly, the new ontology is with high efficient, multi-functional, reliable and energy-saving, small, light-weighted and aesthetically pleasing characteristics. (Mechatronics System) （P7） 机械体包括机架、机械联接和机械传动，它是机电一体化的基础，作用是支撑系统其他功能单元，传递运动和动力。和纯机械产品相比，一体化技术的性能和功能在机电系统中大幅提高，它要求机械本体适应在机械结构、材料、加工技术以及这些领域中的几何学下的新环境。相应的，新的一体化具有高效、多功能、可靠、节能、小轻和美学的令人赏心悦目的特征。 5. Detecting sensor detecting sensor part includes a variety of sensors and signal detection circuit, and its function is to detect the process of mechatronic systems in the work itself and the changes of relevant parameters in external environment and transmit the information to the electronic control unit. Electronic control unit check the information and sends the corresponding control issues to the actuator. (Mechatronics System) （P7） 检测传感器部分包括各类传感器、信号检测电路，它的功能是检测机电系统自身工作的工程，在外部环境下的相关参数的改变，将其信息传给电子控制单元。电子控制单元通过检查信息，送出相应的指令到执行机构。 6. Electronic control unit, also known as ECU, is the core of mechatronic systems, responsible for the external commands and the signals output by sensors. It centralizes stores, computes and analyzes the information. Based on the results of information processing,instruction are issued according to a certain extent and pace to control the destination for the entire system. (Mechatronics System) （P7） 电子控制单元，也被称为控制单元（ECU）控制，是机电系统的核心，负责外部命令和传感器的信号输出。它集中、存储、计算并分析信息。基于信息处理的结果，按照一定的范围和步调发出命令来实现控制整个系统的目标。 7. It is put into a fairly standard machine tool that has had position sensing and motors on the