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探析英汉对比翻译中的照应衔接

探析英汉对比翻译中的照应衔接
探析英汉对比翻译中的照应衔接

2019年第2期英语教师

引言

随着全球化的进一步扩大,国际间的文化交流日益密切。文化间的交流增多意味着两种语言之间转换的增多,因此翻译也越来越受到人们的关注。翻译过程中的衔接问题逐渐受到翻译界的重视。近年来,英汉互译中语篇衔接理论和连贯理论趋向成熟,中外许多学者从不同的角度研究了翻译中的衔接问题。

照应衔接对于文章的连贯性起着重要作用。由于英语和汉语的语篇结构存在差异性,因此二者在互译的过程中,需要译者运用衔接手段使语篇连贯。语篇衔接是一种动态化的、比较具体的含义,研究时应该从不同的方面进行分析。照应衔接运用代词可以形成指称链接,这种链接可以使语篇前后连贯,成为一个衔接的整体。本文主要是从照应的基本概念、照应的分类及英汉照应的差异三个方面论述。

一、照应衔接的相关概念

(一)照应衔接的定义

照应衔接是指运用一系列的语法手段表现出某种语义关系,是语篇中某一语言与另一种语言在指称意义上互相解释的过程,是指一些具有信号性说明的词汇,其本身没有任何语义解释,必须从其所指的对象中确认其表达的信息。虽然语篇中的照应关系是通过语言手段表达出来的,但是其指代与所指的对象是通过语义联系构成照应关系的(王淑华、于秀华2003)。照应可以让作者或语言表述者

简洁地表达想法,表达出上下文中已有的信息。这样的方法不但可以使语篇简洁而紧凑,还可以使文章更具有衔接性和连贯性。

照应性是语言交际中的一种比较普遍的现象,它可以使语言的表述者指代语篇中的相关信息。在理解语篇的过程中,有的所指是在语篇内,而有的需要从语篇外找到表述者的所指对象。在语篇内存在的是内照应,其指代的成分是在语篇内部可以找到的,内照应还可以分为回指和下指。回指是照应前文中出现过的内容或成分,下指是照应后文中出现的内容或成分。哈利迪和哈森(Halliday& Hasan)在1976年指出了外照应的含义。外照应本身不能形成上下文中的衔接关系,只有当语言表达与它们指代的内容在语篇中的信息产生联系时,才具有衔接的作用。本文中讨论的照应都是指内照应(Halliday&Hasan2001)。

(二)照应衔接的分类

衔接是指语篇中的某种意义关系,在衔接中有语法衔接和词汇衔接两种衔接方式(介积霞2009)。在衔接方式中,照应属于其中一种形式,翻译过程中,汉语和英语使用照应是需要根据不同的情况而确定的,不可一概而论,需要考虑语境、文体等(贾红霞2005)。哈利迪和哈森的衔接理论认为,照应关系可以分为人称照应、指示照应及比较照应三种类型。下面,笔者从人称照应关系、指示照应关系、比较照应关系、零式照应四个方面探究英语语篇中的照应衔接。

探析英汉对比翻译中的照应衔接

荣正浩夏云

【摘要】照应衔接对文章的连贯性起着重要的作用,由于英语和汉语语篇结构存在差异性,因此在英汉互译过程中,需要译者运用衔接手段,使语篇连贯。概述照应衔接的定义、分类,及其在英汉双语中的差异。从语篇构成的严密性、句子结构的完整性等两个方面探究照应衔接在英汉对比翻译中的应用。

【关键词】英汉对比翻译;照应;衔接

16

英汉对比与翻译期末论文 (2)

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语境也得以完整地保留了。 以上例子就体现了英汉互译中一个很重要的规律,即词性转换。世界上的语言,不管其各有多少词类,名词和动词都占最大的比例;不管有多少句型,都能归纳为静态与动态两类。总的来说,汉语呈动态特征,英文呈静态特征。在词汇的使用上,汉语的动态表现为:汉语的动词丰富,使用频率高;而英语中,名词、介词等非动词性此类的使用频率很高。据周志培(2003:390)统计显示截选如下:(1)“邓小平在武昌、深圳、珠海、上海等地的谈话要点”及英译 语言总 数名 词 介 词 动 词 助 动 非限 定动 词 代 词 形容 词 副 词 数 词 连 词 量 词 冠 词 汉语词数636 167 11 186 27 41 70 70 39 17 8 % 26% 2% 29% 4% 7% 11% 11% 6% 3% 1% 英语词数907 238 99 105 19 30 98 104 43 28 5 84 % 26% 11% 12% 2% 3% 11% 11% 5% 3% 7% 9% (2)“英国首相撒切尔夫人在中国欢迎宴会上的讲话”及汉译文 语言总 数名词介词动词助动非限定 动词 代词形容 词 副词数 词 连词量词冠 词 汉语词数324 99 9 72 5 36 22 42 15 13 2 % 31% 3% 22% 2% 11% 7% 13% 4% 4% 0.6% 英语词数366 91 49 41 1 9 39 50 22 13 23 28 % 25% 14% 11% 0.2% 2% 10% 14% 6% 4% 6% 8% 上述结果表明,若要在英汉互译中,若要翻译出地道的T arget Text,就应当尽量符合Target Language的表达习惯。这必然包含必 要的词性转换。在进行英译汉时,根据需要将英文中的名词,介词等

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第二讲 原句:I seized the largest brush and fell upon my wretched victim with wild fury. 译文:我抓起那支最大的画笔,势不可挡扑向那全无招架之力的画布。 原文:There is a definite link between smoking and lung cancer. But this doesn’t make you too uncomfortable because you are in good company. 译文:吸烟肯定与肺癌有关,但这并不能使你感到太不舒服,因为吸烟的人不止你一个。 原文:Derek fancies himself as a ladies' man, but he spends too much time admiring himself in the mirror for my liking. 译文:德里克自以为是个讨女人喜欢的人,可是我不喜欢他花那么多的时间在镜子面前自我欣赏。 He is the last man to come. He is the last man to do it. He is the last person for such a job. He should be the last (man) to blame. 原文:John can be relied on. He eats no fish and plays the game. 译文:约翰为人可靠,他既忠诚又正直。 Literal translation takes sentences as its basic units and the whole text into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. It strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the entire literary work and retain as much as possible the figures of speech. 死译:one-to-one translation: each SL word has a corresponding TL word. 硬译:word-for-word translation: Transfers SL grammar and word order, as well as the primary meanings of all the SL words, into translation. It is normally effective only for brief simple neutral sentences. Literal translation goes beyond one-to-one translation, ranges from one word to one word, through group to group, collocation to collocation, clause to clause, to sentence to sentence. Literal translation is the basic translation procedure both in communicative and semantic translation, in that translation starts from there. ---by Newmark Liberal Translation mainly conveys the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence pattern or figures of speech. 原文:我们的朋友遍天下。 错译:Our friends are all over the world. 译文: We have friends all over the world. 单词

英汉对比研究读书报告

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英汉对比翻译word.doc

Unit1 Some scientists speculate the reduction in mental function often attributed to getting old may really be a penalty of neglecting to stay physically active, in addition to related factors such as medicines and poor diet. 一些科学家推测,除了药物作用和饮食不当等因素外,大脑功能下降并非源于往常以为的衰老,实际上它可能是对不注意保持体育运动的一种惩罚。 If you venture just a little way into the woods, your menu can become even more varied. The roots of Jerusalem artichokes (耶路撒冷洋蓟) are often dug in spring and fall at the edges of woods, where the grounds may once have been tilled or farmed. 如果稍微冒点险,进到森林不远处,你的食谱就能变得更为多样。在翻耕过的林地边缘,春秋季节会采到耶路撒冷洋蓟。 Under U.S. law all aliens seeking admission are presumed to require an immigrant visa unless they establish that they are entitled to receive a visa in one of the nonimmigrant categories. 根据美国法律,所有申请入境的外国人都会被认为是在申请移民签证,除非他们能够证实自己有足够的理由,是在申请一种非移民种类的签证。 “I believe that the staging of ‘Turandot’ in Beijing will further demonstrate that the arts, whether opera or film, are the best media for people of different cultures and histories to co mmunicate with each other and to share their feelings and emotions”, said Zhang Yimou, the director of the production. “我相信,图兰多在北京上演,将进一步说明,无论歌剧还是电影,艺术是不同文化和历史背景的人们互相交流,分享情感的最佳媒介”,图兰多的导演张艺谋如是说。 I spent three or four hours on two short chapters –– savoring each paragraph, lingering over a sentence, a phrase or even a single word, building a detailed mental picture of the scene. 书中的短短两章,我就读了三、四个小时。对每个段落,我都仔细品玩,一唱三叹; 对每个句子、每个短语、甚至每个词,我都流连徘徊、依依不舍;书中胜景在我脑海里历历如画,一览无余。 Unit2 午后便步行至鹊华桥,雇了一只小船,荡起双桨。朝北不远,便到了历下亭前。上岸进去,入了大门,便是一个房子,油漆已大半剥蚀完了。 After lunch he walked to the Que Hua Bridge, where he hired a small boat and paddled along towards the north. Soon he reached the Li Xia Pavilion, so he stepped ashore and went in, and when he entered the gate he saw a house, the paint of which was practically all worn away. 外婆最喜欢的是二舅。这不仅是五个儿女中二舅与外婆长得最像,而且他曾是外婆的全部希望。那时外公先是失业在家,后来,又得病瘫痪在床,家境十分困难。而二舅生性活泼,天资聪颖,从小就学习成绩优异。所以,外婆便把家庭的全部希望寄托在二舅身上,节衣缩食地供着二舅上学。 Of all the children, granny loved her second son, my uncle, best. The reason is that he not only resembles her very much, but also represents all her hopes. During those days, with grandpa losing his job first and then becoming bed-ridden with paralysis, our family was living in straitened circumstances. Granny pinned all the hopes of the family on my uncle, who was vivacious by nature and brilliant in his studies ever since his childhood,

汉英英汉翻译理论与实践

Clinton is the first black president . 克林顿是第一个重视黑人权益的总统 Clinton is the first woman president. 克林顿是第一个重视妇女权益的总统 1. We want to buy quality steel. 我们要买高质量的钢材。 2. I am pleased to be here to offer a U.S. business perspective on one of today’s great quality ch allenges: building a high skills/high wage workforce. 我很高兴能来此介绍一下美国商界对当今我们在素质方面所面临的挑战的看法,这项挑战就是如何建立一支高技术,高薪金的劳动队伍。 3. The president now is on a poverty tour. 总统目前正在访问贫困地区。 4. noise abatement procedures. 抑制噪声的措施 5. She is on her listening tour of New York. 她正在纽约巡回访问,听取群众的意见。 6. Professor Smith is leaving the school. That is a stupid loss. 史密斯教授要离开学校了。这个损失实在是不明智才造成的。 7. The kiss represents the symbolic loss of the most famous American child. 那轻轻的一吻是一个象征,代表这个美国著名的孩子已经长大成人了。Criminal law 刑法; Criminal layer专门处理刑事案件的律师; Criminal attack构成犯罪的攻击; criminally insane 形式法庭鉴定为患有精神病 This is a thought-provokingly different explanation . 这个解释完全不同,但却很能给人启发。 Bryant Gumbel is sometimes favorably compared with Ted Koppel. 人们有时把布来恩特甘贝尔和特德考波尔相比,认为甘贝尔更好。The so-called critics are only generically mentioned, but not individually mentioned. 那些所谓的批评者,传媒提到他们时总是泛泛而指,从来不指名道姓。The areas could be profitably rehabilitated. 重建这些地区是有利可图的。 The consensus strategies for managing the world’s forests sustainably. 既能获得各方同意,又能使全球森林得以可持续生长的管理策略。 Men tend to enjoy public, referentially orientated talk, while women enjoy intimate, affectively orientated talk. 男人喜欢公开谈论有具体内容的话题,而女人则喜欢两三个人私下交流感情。 15.The joy of his return 由于他回来而有的喜悦 16. of humble parentage, he began his working life in a shoe factory. 由于出身低微,他的第一个工作是在一家制鞋厂。

英汉翻译被动与主动

之前总结过英汉翻译宏观上的句法差异主要有10点: 1.英语重结构,汉语重语义。 2.英语多长句,汉语多短句。 3.英语多从句,汉语多分句。 4.英语多静态,汉语多动态。英语多物称,汉语多人称。 5.英语多被动,汉语多主动。 6.英语多变化,汉语多重复。 7.英语多抽象,汉语多具体。 8.英语多引申,汉语多推理。 9.英语多省略,汉语多补充。 10.英语多前重,汉语多后重。 英语中被动语态 (1)为了强调接受动作的人或事物的重要性 ?我国各族人民每年都要热烈庆祝十月一日的国庆节。 ?National Day is enthusiastically celebrated on Oct. 1 by the Chinese people of all nationalities every year. (2)便于上下文的连贯、衔接。 ?他出现在台上,观众给与热烈鼓掌。 ?He appeared on the stage and was warmly applauded by the audience. (3)为了使措辞得当、语气委婉 ?来宾请出示入场券。

?Visitors are requested to show their tickets. Assignment 7 Passive vs. Active As we have mentioned in the previous units, the passive voice is extensively used in English, while Chinese sentences are usually active. 有些含有被动语体的习惯用语需要记忆:it is admitted that, it is asserted that, it is believed that, it is claimed that, it is felt that, it is found out that , it is asserted that, it is noticed that, it is pointed out that, it is regarded that , it is stressed that, it is suggested that, It is thought that. (人们承认,有人主张,有人相信,有人认为,人们发现,大家知道,人们注意到,有人指出,人们认为,有人会说,有人强调,有人建议,有人认为,人们曾说...) Exercise: 英语多被动(正式文体的要求),汉语多主动。 1.他准备给我一份工作,这使我大吃一惊。 I was surprised that he is ready to give me a job. 2. 很抱歉,因为雨太大,参观博物馆得推迟到明天了。 ?I’m sorry to say the visit to the museum has to be put off till tomorrow because of the heavy rain 3.采取一国两制适合中国国情, 并非权宜之计。 One country, two systems which is taken is suitable for China's national conditions, not shake-up.

《英汉翻译理论与实践》教学大纲

《英汉翻译理论与实践》课程教学大纲 (英文名称E-C Translation: Theory and Practice) 一、课程说明 课程编码 22110280 课程总学时 32 周学时 2 学分 1.5 课程性质专业必修课适用专业英语专业1、教学内容与学时安排(见下表): 教学内容与学时安排表

2、课程教学目的与要求: 本课程是高等学校英语专业三年级学生开设的一门专业必修课。它是理论与实践相结合的一门课程,其主要目的在于使学生具备笔头英汉翻译的基本能力。通过介绍各类文体语言的特点、汉英两种语言的对比和分析以及各种不同文体的翻译方法,使学生掌握英汉翻译的基本理论,掌握英汉词语、长句及各种文体的翻译技巧和英译汉的能力。要求译文比较准确、流畅,翻译速度达到每小时250-300字。 3、本门课程与其它课程关系: 本课程为英语专业本科三年级学生开设。学生在修该课程之前已修完综合阅读,综合英语,语法学,词汇学,英美文化等课程,这些课程都为学生修该课程奠定了扎实的语言基础。该课程又是学生综合英语语言运用能力的体现和反映,它的开设不仅能提高学生的翻译能力,而且它与英美文学,语言学,口译,高级英语等都能帮助学生进一步提高他们的综合英语语言运用能力。 4、推荐教材及参考书: 教材采用孙致礼编著的《新编英汉翻译教程》上海外语教育出版社(2003年4月第1版)教学参考书 Baker, Mona. 2001. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Bassnett S, Lefevere A. 2001. Constructing Cultures: Essays On Literary Translation.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Brown Gillian & Yule George. 1983. Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2000 Catford, J.C. 1965. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London: Oxford University Press. Hatim B. 2001. Communication Across Cultures:Translation Theory and Contrastive Text

英汉对比与翻译作业答案

The Assignment of a Contrastive Approach to Translation Between English and Chinese ( III ) 翻译下列句子或语段: 1.Only the thought of his mother gave him the strength to go on doing it. 想起母亲,他才鼓足勇气继续做了下去。 2.It was only my capacity for hard work that saved me from early dismissal. 要不是我能干重活,早就给辞退了。 3.China’s support is constant source of encouragement to us in the pursuit of social and economic development and the maintenance of national independence. 中国的支持始终鼓励我们去追求社会和经济发展,维护国家独立。 4.Robots have found application for the exploration of the outer space. 机器人已用于探索外层空间。 5.He’s a big eater. 他这人非常能吃。 6.Of the girl’s sensations they remained a little in doubt. 译文一:姑娘的心思他们一时还无法断定。 译文二:他们一时还无法断定姑娘的心思。 7.He is inexperienced in driving. 译文一:开车他没有经验。 译文二:他开车方面没有经验。 8.And am I not indebted to you for the bread I eat? 译文一:我眼下有口饭吃,还不是多亏了你吗? 译文二:还不是多亏了你,我眼下才有口饭吃。 9.I’ll make my own decision in marriage. 译文一:婚姻的事我自己做主。 译文二:婚姻上我要自己做主。 译文三:我的婚姻我做主。 10.父母爱护子女无微不至。 译文一:Parents’ love of their children is perfect and minute. 译文二:Parents love their children perfectly and minutely. 译文三:Parents are perfect and minute in loving their children. 11.一定要少说空话,多做工作。 译文一: There must be less empty talk and more hard work. 译文二:We should talk less and do more hard work. 12.德国入侵波兰在全世界引起轰动。 译文一: German’s invasion of Poland caused an enormous sensation throughout the world. 译文二:German invaded Poland and it caused an enormous sensation throughout the world. 13.上下班他一般坐地铁。 He usually rides subways to and from work. 14.端午节吃粽子。 People eat rice dumplings on the Dragon Boat Festival. 15.这会儿正下着毛毛雨。 It’s drizzling at the moment. 16.不逢北国之秋,已将近十余年了。 译文一: I have not seen autumn in the North for over ten years. 译文二: It is more than a decade since I last saw autumn in the North. 17.众庄客一头笑着,扶了洪教头,羞颜满面,自投庄外去了。 The tenants burst into laughter and supported the fully shamefaced Master Hong in going out of the house. 18.沉默呵,沉默!不在沉默中爆发,就在沉默中灭亡。 Silence, silence! Unless one bursts out, he shall perish in this silence. 注意:请大家在做作业之前,仔细阅读课本中“刚性与柔性” (Rigid vs. S upple)、“静态与动态” (Static vs. Dynamic)两章内容。

第6章 被动与主动(英汉对比研究)

第六章被动与主动 (Passive vs.Active) 被动语态在英语里是一种常见的语法现象。在某些文体中,使用被动句几乎成了一种表达习惯(passive habit)。S.Baker在“The Practical Stylist”一书中指出:“Our massed,scientific,and bureaucratic society is so addicted to the passive voice that you must constantly alert yourself against its drowsy, impersonal pomp.’’被动句促成了物称倾向,物称倾向也滋长了被动句。英语常用被动句,主要有以下几方面的原因: 一、施事的原因。人们表达思想的时候,通常使用主动句。但当主动句的施事(agent)由于以下的原因而不需要或不可能指明时,英语往往采用被动句: 1.施事未知而难以言明,如: The murderer was caught yesterday,and it is said that he will be hanged. 凶手已于昨天被捕,据说他将会被绞死。 2.施事从上下文中可以不言自明,如: She told me that her master had dismissed her.No reason had been assigned; no objection had been made to her conduct. She had been forbidden to appeal to her mistress.她告诉我,她的男主人已解雇了她。男主人没有讲明任何理由,对她的行为没有任何异议,也不许她向女主人申诉。 3.施事不如受事重要,或受事需要强调,如: Her only son was run over by a car.她的独子被汽车轧了。 有时为了隐去含糊的人称主语(vague pronoun subject),也用被动句: At the tea party they served only tea and cake. At the tea party only tea and cake were served. 茶会上只供应茶和饼。 4.由于特殊的原因而不要指明施事,如为了使叙述显得圆通、得体,或为了表达某种微妙的情绪(tact or delicacy of sentiment),例如: Some things have been said here tonight that ought not to have been spoken. 今晚有人在此讲了些不该讲的话。 二、句法的要求。英语重形合,注重句法结构和表达形式。当主动式不便于表达时,出于造句的需要或修辞的考虑,往往采用被动式: 1.为了使句子承上启下、前后连贯、便于衔接,如: Some kinds of plastics can be forced through machines which separate them into long,thin strings,called “fibres”, and these fibres can be made into cloth. 有几种塑料可以压入机器并分离成细长的纤维,这种纤维可以用来织布。 2.为了使句子平衡,保持末端中心(end focus)和末端重量(end weight),以符合主语简短、谓语复杂的表达习惯,如: 1 was astounded that he was prepared to give me a job. 他准备给我一份工作,这使我大吃一惊。 三、修辞的考虑。英语修辞学主张不要过分使用被动句,但适当使用被动句可以使表达方法灵活多变,避免句型单调,达到一定的修辞效果。例如使用被动式可以减少以填补词“it”、“there”引导的句式,使句子比较干脆、有力。试比较: There are many ways to vary the basic English sentence pattern of subject—verb—object.

《英汉翻译理论与实践》教学大纲讲解

《英汉翻译理论与实践》教学大纲 一、课程名称:英汉翻译理论与实践(English-Chinese Translation Theory and Practice) 二、课程编号:11012010 三、学时与学分:68/4 四、考核方式:考试 五、先修课程:基础英语1-4 六、适用学科专业:英语 七、教学目的与要求: 本课程为本科三年级学生开设。学生在一、二学年里打好了较为牢固的英语基础,具备了较强的汉语驾驭能力,并掌握了英汉两种文化的一般性背景知识,进而修读这门课程。本课程理论与实践相结合,根据学生实际探讨基本翻译理论。上学期通过分析英、汉语语言及文化方面的差异,向学生介绍常用翻译技巧,并要求学生做大量的有关练习,提高学生处理词、句层次的水平,使其具备基础的翻译能力。下学期则引入篇章翻译。 通过对不同文体文本的篇章特点及其翻译的讲评和实践练习,培养学生针对不同文体进行翻译的能力及其篇章意识。要求学生修完本课程后,能熟练运用基本翻译技巧对较宽体裁的文本进行较为准确、流畅的翻译,每小时译速为250—300词/字。 八、基本教学内容与学时安排: 教学内容分为两部分。第一部分介绍词、句层次上的相关翻译技巧:词语的增译、减译,词类转换,句子中的语态变换,正说反译与反说正译的运用,词序调整,分译与合译等。第二部分针对各种常见体裁的文本进行篇章翻译的讲授,培养学生文体意识,对新闻、广告、商贸信贷函、法律、科技等不同文体的篇章特点进行分析,评述篇章翻译对忠实传达原文风格的重要性。与此同时,向学生介绍一些基本翻译理论知识,如翻译标准,翻译原则,奈大的功能对等理论,文化差异对翻译等值的影响以及语言差异对翻译的影响。 具体学时分两个学期安排。 第一学期共17周,每周二学时,安排如下: 第1周翻译的基本知识 2—3周英汉语言对比 第4周直译、意译及混合运用 5—14周翻译技巧:选择词义,词类转换,增译减译,重复译法,正说反译,否定转译,语态变换,词序调整,分译合译等 第15周定语及定语从句 第16周英汉主语的表达 第17周长句的翻译 第二学期共17周,每周二学时,安排如下: 1—2周:介绍文体的翻译 3—4周:人物、景象描写的翻译 5—6周:散文的翻译

叶子南《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》(第3版)-翻译练习(上)【圣才出品】

第二部分翻译实践篇详解 一、非文学类文本(社会人文) 1. Van Gogh Although art historians have spent decades demystifying Van Gogh’s legend ①, they have done little to diminish his vast popularity. Auction prices still soar, visitors still overpopulate Van Gogh exhibitions, and The Starry Night remains ubiquitous on dormitory and kitchen walls②. So complete is Van Gogh’s global apotheosis that③Japanese tourists now make pilgrimages to Auvers to sprinkle their relatives’ ashes on his grave. What accounts for the endless appeal of the Van Gogh myth? It has at least two deep and powerful sources④. At the most primitive level, it provides a satisfying and nearly universal revenge fantasy disguised as the story of heroic sacrifice to art⑤. Anyone who has ever felt isolated and unappreciated can identify with Van Gogh and hope not only for a spectacular redemption⑥but also to put critics and doubting relatives to shame. At the same time, the myth offers an alluringly simplistic conception of great art as the product, not of particular historical circumstances and the artist’s painstaking calculations, but of the naive and spontaneous outpourings of a mad, holy fool⑦. The gaping discrepancy between Van Gogh’s long-suffering life and his remarkable posthumous fame remains a great and undeniable historical irony. But the notion that he was an artistic idiot savant⑧is quickly dispelled by even the most glancing examination of the artist’s letters. It also must be dropped after acquainting

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