语言学重点概念总结

Design features（定义特征）:

the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable

from languages of animals.

Synchronic（共时的）:

said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.

Diachronic（历时的）:

said of the study of development of language and languages over time.

Prescriptive（规定式）:

to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.

Descriptive（描写式）:

to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.

Competence（语言能力）:

unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.

对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。

Performance（语言运用）:

the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.

人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。

Langue（语言）:

the language system shared by a “speech community”．

一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。

Parole（言语）:

the concrete utterances of a speaker.

说话人实际说的话语。

Phonology（音系学）：

the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles

that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.

International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）:

a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include

new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice.

Cardinal Vowels（基本元音）:

a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of

reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.

Assimilation（同化现象）:

a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a

If a following sound is influencing a

term often used synonymously with “coarticulation”.

preceding sound, it is called regressive ”assimilation”; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive ”assimilation”．Maximal Onset Principle（最大节首原则）:

a principle for dividing the syllable when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels,

which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset

rather than the coda.

Morpheme（语素）:

the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit

that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.

Inflection（屈折变化）:

is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such

as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.

Derivation（派生词）:

is the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words.

It is accomplished by means of a large number of affixes of English language, and shows the relationship between roots and affixes.

Bound morpheme（黏着语素）:

refer to those which cannot occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme.

Free morpheme（自由语素）:

refer to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves.

Grammatical word（语法词）:

refer to those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause complex, or even text,

such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together different content parts.

Lexical word（词汇词）:

refer to those which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns,

verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Lexical words carry the main content of a language.

Closed-class（封闭类）:

A word that belongs to the CLOSED-CLASS is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member.

Open-class（开放类）:

is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs are all open-class items.

Syntax（句法）:

the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences

in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.

Co-occurrence（共现）:

It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word

of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.

Endocentric（向心结构）:

endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, which serves as a definable Center or Head of the whole.

Exocentric（离心结构）:

exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words

or

is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre”　

“Head” inside the group.

Subordination（从属关系）:

refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. Coordination（并列）:

a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or . Cohesion:

refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, that define it as a text.

Synonymy（同义关系）:

synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely

the sameness relation.

Semantic components（语义成分）:

semantic components, or semantic features, are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analysed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE.

Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）:

psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field based on psychology and linguistics, psycholinguistics investigates the six following subjects: language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, language disorders, language and thought, and cognitive architecture of language, The most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.

Language acquisition（语言习得）:

language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Acquiring a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons. Four phases are identified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition: holophrastic stage, two-word stage, three-word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage.

cohort model（集群模型）:

The cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990, it is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are

no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input; the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner.

interactive model（交互模型）:

The interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down”　influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sublexical units.

In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in

phonemes that have been removed from the speech

other cases, listeners continue to “hear”　

signal and replaced by noise.

serial model（串行模型）:

Serial model proposes that the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially

follows the constraints of a language’s grammar with remarkable speed. Serial model describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily

grammatical information. Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated,

using the full range of information that might be relevant.

parallel model（并行模型）:

Parallel model emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the

speaker/writer and of the world in general. Parallel model describes how the processor uses all

relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence. It

is generally acknowledged that listeners and readers integrate grammatical and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence.

figure-ground alignment（图形-背景关系）:

Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and

the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one,

because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground.

basic level category（基本层次范畴）:

Basic level category is the most economical level at which you can find the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this

level. It is at this level that we conjure up the general gestalt of the category.

image schema（意象图式）:

Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs

that gives coherence and structure to our experience.

Metaphor（隐喻）:

Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other.

It’s often described i n terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the

experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in

order to describe the experience.

Metonymy（转喻）:

Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing for

that of another.

Communicative Competence（交际能力）:

vs.

is a sociolinguistic rule put forward by Dell Hymes in contrast with the “competence”　“performance” dichotomy in theoretic linguistics.

Context of Situation（语境理论）:

is a framework put forward by Firth. This theory has the following elements (Firth, 1950: 43-44

[Palmer, 1981: 53-54]).

A. The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:

(i) The verbal action of the participants.

(ii) The non-verbal action of the participants.

B. The relevant objects.

C. The effects of the verbal action.

Ethnography of Communication（交际民族学）:

is an authoritative research framework of our time in a linguistic study of social and cultural

factors (Hymes, 1962).

Speech Community（话语群体）:

refers to a group of people who “share not only the same rules of speaking, but at least one

(Hymes, 1972: 52) SPEAKING: is a mnemonic way of summarizing

linguistic variety as well.”　

certain components of speech which make possible the description and analysis of

communicative behavior: S=Situation（场景）, P=Participants（参与者）, E=Ends（目的）, A=Act

sequence（相关形式与内容）, K=Key（语气）, I=Instrumentalities（语式）, N=Norms（准则）,

and G=Genres（体裁）.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis（萨丕尔--沃尔夫假设）:

is a theoretic assumption which suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and,

consequently, different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding

the world. In a loose sense, this term can be interchangeably used with linguistic relativity and

linguistic determinism.

Variationist Linguistics（语言变体）:

is a theoretic framework advanced by William Labov to study how language variation and change

take place in different social contexts or geographic districts under the influence of social factors

such as economics, education, class, gender, style, and so on. The method it uses is basically

quantitative, but qualitative instruments have recently been introduced in this branch of linguistic

research for a better description and explanation of the data collected.

performative（施为句）:

A performative is a sentence like “I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth”, which does not desc things and cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of a performative sentence is, or is a

part of, the doing of an action. Verbs like “name” are known as performative verbs.

locutionary act（发话行为）:

The locutionary act is the ordinary act we perform when we speak, i.e. we move our vocal organs

and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. For

we could say he produced a sound, word or

example, when somebody says “Morning!”,

sentence—“Morning!”

perlocutionary act（取效行为）:

The perlocutionary act concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer. By

telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or

mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects

are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has

performed.

illocutionary act（行事行为）:

The illocutionary act is the act performed in the performing of a locutionary act. When we speak

we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our

purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain

we can say it has the force of a

forces as Austin prefers to say. In the example of “Morning!”　

greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting.

cooperative principle（合作原则）:

This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads

your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the

There are four

accepted purpose or direct ion of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”.

categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relation maxim, and

manner maxims.

conversational implicature（会话含义）:

This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of

words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense,

implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both

concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意in Chinese.

entailment（衍推）:

This is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily

follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the

second. For example, when “I saw a boy” is true, “I saw a child” is necessarily true; and if child” is not true, “I saw a boy” will not be true either.

third-person narrator（第三人称叙述者）:

If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a THIRD-PERSON

NARRATOR, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve

the use of the third-person pronouns, he, she, it or they. This type of narrator is arguably the

dominant narrator type.

i-narrator（第一人称叙述者）:

The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating

the story after the event. In this case the critics call the narrator a FIRST-PERSON NARRATOR or

I-NARRATOR because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person

pronoun I is used. First-person narrators are often said to be “limited” because they don't know all the facts or “unreliable” because they trick the reader by withholding information

or telling

untruths. This often happens in murder and mystery stories.

concordance（共现索引）:

sorting the data in some way, for example, alphabetically on words occurring in the immediate

context of the word.

corpus（语料库）:

a collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded

speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about language, for example, to

determine how the usage of a particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.

语言学重点概念总结

Design features（定义特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共时的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描写式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（语言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:

the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue（语言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole（言语）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology（音系学）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include

语言学重要概念梳理(中英文对照版)

第一节语言的本质 一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features） 1.任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的 声音，各国不同的表达方式 2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning） 3.多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层 结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences） 4.移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将 来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等 5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中 掌握 二、语言的功能（Functions of Language） 1.传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function 2.人际功能 Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能 establish and maintain their identity 3.行事功能 performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge， naming，and curses 4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句 exclamatory expressions 5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？” “天儿真好啊！”等等 6.元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如 book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的 “书” 三、语言学的分支 1. 核心语言学 Core linguistic 1)语音学 Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语 言中的单音。Its main focus is on the articulation， transmission and reception of human sounds， especially isolated sounds 2)音位学Phonology：从功能的角度出发对出现在某种特定语言中的语音及其 组合、分布规律进行研究的语言学分支。The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns from function perspective. 3)形态学 Morphology：研究单词的内部构造the internal structure of words 4)句法学 Syntax：研究组词造句的规则the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.

语言学 重点概念

Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言langue The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.言语parole The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.

新概念第一册语法对每一课重点都进行总结.

新概念一共144课，其中单课为课文，双课为语法和练习。整本书是以单数课为正课，并附带有插图，而双数课则是针对单数课所讲的内容有针对性地进行练习。 学习目标：（1）达到初中或高中一年级的英语水平（2）掌握英语初级语法（3）应对一般的日常对话（4）掌握800至1200个单词，其中的800个词汇全部是英语日常用语中出现频率最高的词汇。 上册(1—68课) 上册所学单词在600左右，含有名词、形容词、动词及少数介词，其中名词占大多数，会学习到较多的生活用词。 语法点归纳： (1) 1--68课本中出现的时态： Lesson 31—34 现在进行时 Lesson 37--40 第一次出现be going to 的将来时 Lesson 51—56 一般现在时 Lesson 67—76 一般过去式 第几课教学内容教学目标及要求 1-2 1,Excuse me 2,Is this your…? 1, 要求学生灵活运用句型：Is this your…? 2，pardon和excuse me的用法 3，L1、2课的单词及L1的课文要求能背诵。 3-4 3,Sorry,sir. 4,Is this your…? 1, 继续巩固句型：Is this your…? 2，新句型：祈使句 My____, please. 否定句 This is（not）____. 3，L3、4课的单词及L3的课文要求背诵

5-6 5，nice to meet you 6, What make is it? 1, 主语为第三人称单数的主系表结构，She/ He/I t is… 2，了解一些常见国籍的拼读 3，This is …（一般用于将某人介绍给他人的句式） 4，Nice to meet you.（用于初次与朋友、同学见面的 问好） 5，认知一些汽车的品牌 6，国籍、汽车品牌要求会认读，其他单词及课文要求背 诵 7-8 7,Are you a teacher? 8,What’s your job? 1, 重点句型： Are you …?/ Wha t’s your job?/ What nationality are you? I’m…（介绍自己：名字，国籍以及职业等） 2，I am 的缩写（I’m） 3，不定冠词a, an 9-10 9, How are you today? 10, Look at… 1,重点句型： How are you?(朋友或相识的人之间见面时的寒暄话) 2，如何问候他人（How is …?） 3，nice to see you .(见面时的客气话) 4，Look at…（看…）。 5，第三人称代词与be动词的缩写。 6，L9、10的单词及L9的课文要求背诵。（L10的单词 是形容词，且相互之间是反义词） 11-12 11, Is this your shirt? 12, Whose is this/that…? 1, Whose ______ is that/this? 句型的掌握 2，掌握带形容词性物主代词的This is .. 句型。 3，所有格的认知和掌握 4，Here you are的灵活运用。 5，L11、12的单词、L11的课文及my、your、his、her 要求背诵 13-14 13,A new dress 14,What color’s your? 1, 掌握What color’s ________?句型以及回答。 2，掌握一些常见颜色。 3, 学习Here it is.并复习Here you are. 1，And 连接两个动词的用法。 2，单词和课文要求背诵。

最新英语语言学超强总结

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