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计算化学实验室入门

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计算化学实验室入门

Introduction to Computational Chemistry Laboratory

Table of Contents

1.Introduction. Overview of computational chemistry.

2.Theoretical background of computational chemistry.

?Ab-initio methods for electronic structure calculations

?Semiempirical calculations

?Molecular mechanics approach

?Molecular dynamics method

?Statistical mechanics and Thermodynamics

?Structure-Property Relationships

?Symbolic calculations

?Artificial Intelligence

3.How to do a computational research project (lab).

4.TAU Computational Chemistry Laboratory.

?Hardware and Software for computations and visualization available in TAU Computational Chemistry Laboratory.

5.Summary

6.Further information and references

1. Introduction.

Overview of Computational Chemistry.

The term theoretical chemistry may be defined as the mathematical description of chemistry.

Currently, there are two ways to approach theoretical chemistry problems: computational theoretical chemistry and non-computational theoretical chemistry.

Computational theoretical chemistry is primarily concerned with the numerical computation of molecular electronic structures and molecular interactions and non-computational quantum chemistry deals with the formulation of analytical expressions for the properties of molecules and their reactions.

The term computational chemistry is usually used when a mathematical method is sufficiently well developed that it can be automated for implementation on a computer. Computational chemistry is the application of chemical, mathematical and computing skills to the solution of interesting chemical problems. It uses computers to generate information such as properties of molecules or simulated experimental results. Very few aspects of chemistry can be computed exactly, but almost every aspect of chemistry has been described in a qualitative or approximate quantitative computational scheme. The biggest mistake that computational chemists can make is to assume that any computed number is exact. However, just as not all spectra are perfectly resolved, often a qualitative or approximate computation can give useful insight into chemistry if you understand what it tells you and what it doesn't.

Computational chemistry has become a useful way to investigate materials that are too difficult to find or too expensive to purchase. It also helps chemists make predictions before running the actual experiments so that they can be better prepared for making observations.

The quantum and classical mechanics as well as statistical physics and thermodynamics are the foundation for most of the computational chemistry theory and computer programs. This is because they model the atoms and molecules with mathematics. Using computational chemistry software you can in particular perform:

?electronic structure determinations,

?geometry optimizations,

?frequency calculations,

?definition of transition structures and reaction paths,

?protein calculations, i.e. docking,

?electron and charge distributions calculations,

?calculations of potential energy surfaces (PES),

?calculations of rate constants for chemical reactions (kinetics)

?thermodynamic calculations- heat of reactions, energy of activation, etc

?calculation of many other molecular and balk physical and chemical properties.

The most important numerical techniques are ab-initio, semi-empirical and molecular mechanics. Definitions of these terms are helpful in understanding the use of computational techniques for chemistry:

?ab-initio, (Latin for "from scratch") a group of methods in which molecular structures can be calculated using nothing but the Schr?dinger equation, the values of the fundamental constants and the atomic numbers of the atoms present.

?Semi-empirical techniques use approximations from empirical (experimental) data to provide the input into the mathematical models.

?Molecular mechanics uses classical physics and empirical or semi-empirical (pre-determined) force fields to explain and interpret the behavior of atoms and molecules.

The table below attempts to capture the main specifics of each of these three methods: Method

Type

Features Advantages Disadvantages Best for

Molecular Mechanics ?Uses classical

physics

?Relies on force-field

with embedded

empirical parameters

?Computationally

least intensive - fast

and useful with limited

computer resources

?Can be used for

molecules as large as

enzymes

?Relies on potentials

that have to be

somehow supplied

?Sometimes

inaccurate because the

supplied potentials are

used beyond their

proven range of

validity

?Particular force

field, applicable only

for a limited class of

molecules

?Does not calculate

electronic properties

?Requires

experimental data (or

data from ab initio

calculations)

?Large systems

(~1000 of atoms)

?Systems or

processes with no

breaking or forming

of bonds

Semi-Empirical ?Uses quantum

physics

?Uses experimentally

derived empirical

parameters

?Uses many

approximation

?Less demanding

computationally than

ab initio methods

?Capable of

calculating transition

states and excited

states

?Requires

experimental data (or

data from ab initio)

for parameters

?Less rigorous than

ab initio) methods

?Medium-sized

systems (hundreds of

atoms)

?Systems involving

electronic transition

Ab Initio?Uses quantum

physics

?Mathematically

rigorous, no empirical

parameters

?Uses approximation

extensively ?Useful for a broad

range of systems

?does not depend on

experimental data

?Capable of

calculating transition

states and excited

states

?Computationally

expensive

?Small systems

(tens of atoms)

?Systems involving

electronic transition

?Molecules without

available

experimental data

?Systems requiring

rigorous accuracy

In the next chapter these and some other basic theoretical methods, both numerical and analytical, will be described in more details.

2. Theoretical background of Computational Chemistry

?Ab-initio methods for electronic structure

calculations

The most common type of ab-initio calculation is called Hartree-Fock calculation (abbreviated HF), in which the primary approximation is called the mean field approximation. This means that the Coulombic electron-electron repulsion is not explicitly taken into account, however, its average effect is included in the calculation. This is a variational calculation, which implies that the approximate energies calculated are all equal to or greater than the exact energy. The accuracy of the calculation depends on the size of the basis set used, however because of the mean field approximation, the energies from HF calculations are always greater than the exact energy and tend, with increasing basis size, to a limiting value called the Hartree-Fock limit.

An additional issue that affects the accuracy of the computed results is the form chosen for the basis functions. The actual form of the single electronic molecular wave function (molecular orbital) is of course not known. The forms, used for the basis functions, can provide a better or worse approximation to the exact numerical single electron solution of the HF equation. The basis functions used most often are combinations of either Slater type orbitals (exp(-ax)) or Gaussian type orbitals (exp(-ax2)), abbreviated STO and GTO. Molecular orbital is formed from linear combinations of atomic orbitals, which are nothing more than linear combinations of basis functions with coefficients founded from the appropriate atomic HF calculations. Because of this approximation, most HF calculations give a computed energy greater than the Hartree-Fock limit. The exact set of basis functions used is often specified by an abbreviation, such as STO-3G or 6-311++g**. In the Appendix 1 to this manual you can read about structures and features of some popular basis sets.

More advanced calculations begin with a HF calculation then correct for correlations that result from the electron-electron repulsion. Some of these methods are Many-Body Perturbation Theory (MBPT-n, where n is the order of correction), the Generalized Valence Bond (GVB) method, Multi-Configurations Self Consistent Field (MCSCF), Configuration Interaction (CI) and Coupled Cluster theory (CC). As a group, these methods are referred to as correlated calculations.

Another method, which avoids making the HF mistakes in the first place is called Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC). There are several flavors of QMC, variational, diffusion and Green's functions. These methods work with an explicitly correlated wave function and evaluate integrals numerically using a Monte Carlo integration. These calculations can be very time consuming, but they could yield extremely accurate results.

An alternative ab-initio method is Density Functional Theory (DFT), in which the total energy is expressed in terms of the total electron density, rather than the wavefunction. This type of calculation leads to an approximate effective or model Hamiltonian and to an approximate expression for the total electron density. Often the electron density approximations are made using some empirical corrections. Such DFT approaches are related to semi-empirical methods, which are addressed in the next chapter.

The good side of ab-initio methods is that they eventually converge to the exact solution, once all of the approximations are made sufficiently small in magnitude. However, this convergence is not monotonic. Sometimes, more approximate calculation gives better result for a given property, than a more elaborate calculation.

The bad side of ab-initio methods is that they are expensive. These methods often take enormous amounts of computer CPU time, memory and disk space. The HF method scales as N4, where N is the number of basis functions, so a calculation twice as big takes 16 times as long to complete. Correlated calculations often scale much worse than this. In practice, extremely accurate solutions are only obtainable when the molecule contains a few electrons.

In general, ab-initio calculations give very good qualitative results and can give increasingly accurate quantitative results as the molecules in question become smaller.

You can read more details about theoretical background of main ab-initio methods in the Appendix 2 to this manual.

Note on units: The energies calculated are usually in units called Hartrees (1 H = 27.2114 eV).

?Semiempirical calculations

Semiempirical calculations are set up with the same general structure as a HF calculation. Within this framework, certain pieces of information, such as two electron integrals, are approximated or completely omitted. In order to correct the errors introduced by omitting these parts of the calculation, the method is parameterized, by curve fitting in a few parameters or numbers, in order to give the best possible agreement with experimental data.

The good side of semiempirical calculations is that they are much faster than the ab-initio calculations.

The bad side of semiempirical calculations is that the results can be erratic. If the molecule under study is similar to molecules in the data base used to parameterize the method, then the results may be very good. If this molecule is significantly different from anything in the parameterization set, the answers may be poor.

Semiempirical calculations have been very successful in computational organic chemistry, where there are only a few elements used extensively and the molecules are of moderate size. However, semiempirical methods have been devised specifically for the description of inorganic chemistry as well.

?Molecular Mechanics approach

If a molecule is too big to effectively use a semiempirical treatment, it is still possible to model it's behavior by avoiding quantum mechanics. This is done by constructing a simple expression for “molecular force field”, i.e. the potential energy as

function of all atomic positions, and using it study molecular properties without the need to compute a wave function or total electron density. The energy expression consists of simple classical equations, such as the harmonic oscillator equation in order to describe the energy associated with bond stretching, bending, rotation and intermolecular forces, such as Van der Waals interactions and hydrogen bonding. All of the constants in these equations must be obtained from experimental data or an ab-initio calculation.

In a molecular mechanics method, the database of compounds used to parameterize the method (a set of parameters and functions is called a force field) is crucial to its success. Where as a semiempirical method may be parameterized against a set of organic molecules, a molecular mechanics method may be parameterized against a specific class of molecules, such as proteins. Such a force field would only be expected to have any relevance to describing other proteins.

The good side of molecular mechanics is that it allows the modeling of enormous molecules, such as proteins and segments of DNA, making it the primary tool of computational biochemists.

The bad side is that there are many chemical properties that are not even defined within the method, such as electronic excited states. In order to work with extremely large and complicated systems, often molecular mechanics software packages have the most powerful and easiest to use graphical interfaces. Because of this, mechanics is sometimes used because it is easy, but not necessarily a good way to describe a system.

?Molecular Dynamics method

Molecular dynamics consists of examining the time dependent behavior of a molecule, such as vibrational motion or Brownian motion. This is most often done within a classical mechanical description similar to a molecular mechanics calculation.

The application of molecular dynamics to solvent/solute systems allows the computation of properties such as diffusion coefficients or radial distribution functions for use in statistical mechanical treatments. Usually the scheme of a solvent/solute calculation is that a number of molecules (perhaps 1000) are given some initial position

and velocity. New positions are calculated a small time later based on this movement and this process is iterated for thousands of steps in order to bring the system to equilibrium and give a good statistical description of the radial distribution function.

In order to analyze the vibrations of a single molecule, many dynamics steps are done, then the data is Fourier transformed into the frequency domain. A given peak can be chosen and transformed back to the time domain, in order to see what the motion at that frequency looks like.

?Statistical Mechanics and Thermodynamics

Statistical mechanics is the mathematical means to extrapolate thermodynamic properties of bulk materials from a molecular description of the material. Statistical mechanics computations are often tacked onto the end of ab inito calculations for gas phase properties. For condensed phase properties, often molecular dynamics calculations are necessary in order to do a computational experiment.

Thermodynamics is one of the best developed physical theories and it give us a good theoretical starting point for analysis of molecular systems. Very often any thermodynamic treatment is left for trivial pen and paper work since many aspects of chemistry are so accurately described with very simple mathematical expressions.

?Structure-Property Relationships

Structure-property relationships are qualitative or quantitative empirically defined relationships between molecular structure and observed properties. In some cases this may seem to duplicate statistical mechanical results, however structure-property relationships need not be based on any rigorous theoretical principles.

The simplest case of structure-property relationships are qualitative thumb rules. For example, an experienced polymer chemist may be able to predict whether a polymer will be soft or brittle based on the geometry and bonding of the monomers.

When structure-property relationships are mentioned in current literature, it usually implies a quantitative (which does not mean rigorous) mathematical relationship. These relationships are most often derived by using curve fitting software to find the linear combination of molecular properties, which best reproduces the desired property. The molecular properties are usually obtained from molecular modeling computations. Other molecular descriptors such as molecular weight or topological descriptions are also used.

When the property being described is a physical property, such as the boiling point, this is referred to as a Quantitative Structure-Property Relationship (QSPR). When the property being described is a type of biological activity (such as drug activity), this is referred to as a Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR).

?Symbolic Calculations

Symbolic calculations are performed when the system is just too large for an atom-by-atom description to be viable at any level of approximation. An example might be the description of a membrane by describing the individual lipids as some representative polygon with some expression for the energy of interaction. This sort of treatment is used for computational biochemistry and even microbiology.

?Artificial Intelligence

Techniques invented by computer scientists interested in artificial intelligence have been applied mostly to drug design in recent years. These methods also go by the names De Novo or rational drug design. The general scenario is that some functional site has been identified and it is desired to come up with a structure for a molecule that will interact with that site in order to hinder it's functionality. Rather than have a chemist try hundreds or thousands of possibilities with a molecular mechanics program, the molecular mechanics is built into an artificial intelligence program, which tries enormous

numbers of "reasonable" possibilities in an automated fashion. The techniques for describing the "intelligent" part of this operation are so diverse and their number so large, that it is impossible to make any generalization about how this is implemented in a generic program.

3. How to do a computational research project (lab)

When using computational chemistry to answer a chemical question, the obvious problem is that you need to know how to use the software. Then, you need to have some information and/or intuition, concerning the quality of the answer, and you have to be able to make rational decisions about the possibility to sacrifice accuracy for efficiency. Here is a check list to follow.

?What do you want to know? How accurately? Why?

If you can't answer these questions, then you don't even have a research project yet.

?How accurate do you predict the answer will be?

In analytical chemistry, you do a number of identical measurements then work out the error from a standard deviation. With computational experiments, doing the same thing should always give exactly the same result. The way that you estimate your error is to compare a number of similar computations to the experimental answers. There are articles and compilations of these studies. If none exist, you will have to guess which method should be reasonable, based on it's assumptions then do a study yourself, before you can apply it to your unknown and have any idea how good the calculation is.

?How long do you expect it to take?

Often computational chemistry calculations (especially ab-initio ones) are so time consuming that it would take a decade to do a single calculation, even if you had a very power machine with enough memory and disk space. However, a number of

methods exist because each is best for different situations. The trick is to determine which one is best for your project. Again, concerning the time consumption, the answer is to look into the literature and see how long each calculation takes, when particular soft- and hardware is used. If the only thing you know is how a calculation scales, do the simplest possible calculation then use the scaling equation to estimate how long it will take to do the sort of calculation that you have predicted will give the desired accuracy.

?What approximations are being made? Which are significant?

This is how you avoid “successfully” performing a calculation that is complete garbage. An example would be trying to find out about vibrational motions that are very anharmonic, when the calculation uses a harmonic oscillator approximation.

Once you have finally answered all of these questions, you are ready to actually do a calculation. Now you must determine what software suitable for your hardware is available, what it costs and how to use it. Note that two programs of the same type (i.e. ab-initio) may calculate different properties, so you have to make sure the program does exactly what you want.

When you are learning how to use a program, you may try to do dozens of calculations that will fail because you constructed the input incorrectly. Do not use your project molecule to do this. Make all your mistakes with something really easy, like a water molecule. That way you don't waste enormous amounts of time.

4. TAU computational chemistry laboratory course

The aim of the laboratory-course that is being given at TAU starting in the 2nd semester 2004 is to give the 3rd and 4th year students fundamental knowledge and basic skills in solving computational chemistry problems using commercial codes on windows

and unix workstations. This lab is not aimed for experts in theoretical chemistry. On the contrary, it is aimed at experimental chemists in all disciplines who are interested in applying computational chemistry methods in their research and in their future professional careers. Therefore no pre-requisites are imposed beyond first year chemistry and second year physical chemistry (including introduction to quantum chemistry).

In 2008 the laboratory will be given still on an experimental basis. From the point of views of the students this will imply that details of the projects required may be adjusted during the semester in order to adjust to students suggestions and needs. Furthermore, instructors will be asked to provide close guidance of the required computational experiments and to respond to students questions and needs throughout the week. No hard core theoretical effort will be required, but the students will be asked to gain a qualitative knowledge of the methods used and to understand the way in which input and output are read in and analyzed. Upon successful completion of the lab requirements a student should be able to apply the codes studied to routine organic compounds and processes.

?Hardware and software for calculations and

visualization available in TAU Computational

Chemistry Laboratory (TAUCCL)

1) Some common computer software used in TAUCCL for computational chemistry practicum includes:

?Gaussian W03 (ab-initio, semiempirical, molecular mechanics calculations)

?Hyperchem 7.5(ab-initio, semiempirical, molecular mechanics & dynamics calculations)

Data visualization is the process of displaying information in any sort of pictorial or graphical representation. A number of computer programs are now available at TAUCCL

to apply a colorization scheme to data or work with three dimensional representations (Gaussview, MolDen,gOpenMol).

More detail information about possibilities, limitations and correct exploitation of particular computational chemistry program you can find in the appropriate “Beginner Guide” or in the corresponding Program Manual.

2) Hardware in TAUCCL includes 12 PC stations with dual boot Windows XP and LINUX OS.

5. Summary

1) To summarize, computational chemistry is:

? a branch of chemistry that generates data which complements experimental data on the structures, properties and reactions of substances. The calculations are based on quantum and classical mechanics, molecular dynamics, statistical theory and thermodynamics, semiempirical structure-properties relationships, theories of symbolic calculations and artificial intelligence, and include:

1.Global potential energy surfaces calculations (including equilibrium states,

transition structures and Van-der-Waals complexes)

2.Calculation of wave function and electronic charge distribution and many

other non energetic properties (like multiple moments, NMR parameters,

etc)

3.Molecular geometry in ground and excited states

4. Vibrational and rotational constants

5.Reaction paths and rate constants for chemical reactions

6.Details of the dynamics of molecular collisions

7.thermodynamical properties

?Particularly useful for:

1.Determination of properties that are inaccessible experimentally

2.Interpretation of experimental data

2) Before starting a computational chemistry project (lab) one has to make a scientifically grounded chose of the appropriate computational method and the corresponding software which suits the available hardware limits (memory, disc space and CPU-time). Then one has to learn how to make input file, how to run the program and how to interpret output on some simple examples. After all that steps were done the actual calculation could be started.

6. Further information and references

For an introductory level overview of computational chemistry see the main reference and source for this manual :

David Young "Computational Chemistry: A Practical Guide for Applying Techniques to Real World Problems", John Wiley & Sons , 2001

A more detailed description of common computational chemistry techniques is contained in

A. R. Leach "Molecular Modelling Principles and Applications" Addison Wesley Longman (1996)

G. H. Grant, W. G. Richards "Computational Chemistry" Oxford (1995)

F. Jensen "Introduction to Computational Chemistry" John Wiley & Sons (1999)

There are many books on the principles of quantum mechanics and every physical chemistry text has an introductory treatment. The book below is excellent for both intermediate and advanced users.

C. Cohen-Tannoudji, B. Diu, F. Laloe "Quantum Mechanics Volumes I & II" Wiley-Interscience (1977)

For an introduction to quantum chemistry see

D. A. McQuarrie "Quantum Chemistry" University Science Books (1983)

A graduate level text on quantum chemistry is

I. N. Levine "Quantum Chemistry" Prentice Hall (1991)

An advanced undergraduate or graduate text on quantum chemistry is

P. W. Atkins, R. S. Friedman "Molecular Quantum Mechanics" Oxford (1997) For quantum Monte Carlo methods see

B. L. Hammond, W. A. Lester, Jr., P. J. Reynolds "Monte Carlo Methods in Ab-initio Quantum Chemistry" World Scientific (1994)

A good review article on density functional theory is

T. Ziegler Chem. Rev. 91, 651-667 (1991)

For density functional theory see

R. G. Parr, W. Yang "Density-Functional Theory of Atoms and Molecules" Oxford (1989) For a graduate level description of statistical mechanics see

D. A. McQuarrie "Statistical Mechanics" Harper Collins (1976)

For thermodynamics study we recommend

I. N. Levine "Physical Chemistry" McGraw Hill (1995)

Another nice introduction to computational chemistry is

S. Profeta, Jr. "Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology Supplement" 315, John Wiley & Sons (1998).

There is a comprehensive listing of all available molecular modeling software and structural databanks, free or not, in appendix 2 of

"Reviews in Computational Chemistry Volume 6" Ed. K. B. Lipkowitz and D. B. Boyd, VCH (1995)

There is a write up on computer aided drug design at

gopher://https://www.sodocs.net/doc/7816443167.html,/00/documents/drug.design.guide

Mathematical challenges from theoretical/computational chemistry

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/7816443167.html,/readingroom/books/mctcc/index.html

An online text on molecular modeling using molecular mechanics

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/7816443167.html,/Science/Compchem/feature01.html

A Computational Chemistry Primer

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/7816443167.html,/GatherScatter/GSwinter96/taylor1.html

An online text on computational chemistry

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/7816443167.html,/~ubcg8ab/course/os_molf.html

物理化学实验报告_离子迁移数的测定

离子迁移数的测定——界面法 实验者:杨岳洋 同组实验者:张知行 学号:2015012012 班级:材54 实验日期:2016年9月19日 助教:袁倩 1 引言 1.1 实验目的 (1)采用界面法测定+H 的迁移数。 (2)掌握测定离子迁移数的基本原理和方法。 1.2 实验原理及公式 本实验采用的是界面法,以镉离子作为指示离子,测某浓度的盐酸溶液中氢离子的迁移数。 (1)当电流通过电解电池的电解质溶液时,两极发生化学变化,溶液中阳离子和阴离子分别向阴极和阳极迁移。假若两种离子传递的电荷量分别为+q 和-q ,通过的总电荷量为 -++=q q Q 每种离子传递的电荷量和总电荷量之比,称为离子迁移数。阴、阳离子的离子迁移数分别为 Q q t --= , Q q t ++= 且 1=+-+t t 在包含数种阴、阳离子的混合电解质溶液中,-t 和+t 各为所有阴、阳离子迁移数的总和。一般增加某种离子的浓度,则该离子传递电荷量的百分数增加离子迁移数也所制增加。但是对于仅含一种电解质的溶液,浓度改变使离子间的引力场改变,离子迁移数也会改变,但是变化的大小与正负因不同物质而异。 温度改变,迁移数也会发生变化,一般温度升高时,-t 和+t 的差别减小。 (2)在一截面均匀垂直放置的迁移管中,充满HCl 溶液,通以电流,当有电荷量为Q 的电 流通过每个静止的截面时, +t Q 当量的+H 通过界面向上走,-t Q 当量的- Cl 通过界面往下行。

假定在管的下部某处存在一个界面(a a '),在该界面以下没有+H ,而被其他的正离子(例如+ 2Cd )取代,则此界面将随着+H 往上迁移而移动,界面的位置可通过界面上下溶液性 质的差异而测定。例如,利用pH 的不同指示剂显示颜色不同,测出界面。在正常条件下,界面保持清晰,界面以上的一段溶液保持均匀,+H 往上迁移的平均速率,等于界面形成界面向上移动的速率。在某通电的时间t 内,界面扫过的体积为V ,+H 输送电荷的数量为该体积中+H 带电的总数,即 VCF q =+ 式中:C 为+H 的浓度,F 为法拉第常数,电荷量常以库[仑](C )表示。 (3)界面保持清晰的原理: Cd 阳极上Cd 氧化,进入溶液生成CdCl 2,逐渐顶替HCl 溶液,CdCl 2与HCl 不相混合,因为 +2Cd 淌度(u )较小,即++

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化学实验六大解题技巧有哪些 实验综合题是高考的热点问题,高考再现率为100%。要想快速而准确的解决实验综合题,不仅要掌握实验基本操作技能,而且要理解实验原理。为了帮助同学们在化学实验方 面的应考能力有质的飞跃,归纳总结了以下几个步骤供学习参考。 一、导气管的连接 一般应遵循装置的排列顺序。对于吸收装置,若为洗气瓶则应“长”进利于杂质的充 分吸收“短”出利于气体导出;若为盛有碱石灰的干燥管吸收水分和,则应“粗”进同样 利用和水蒸气的充分吸收“细”出利于余气的导出;若为了排水量气时,应“短”进“长”出,被排出水的体积即为生成气体的体积。 二、仪器的连接 根据实验原理选择仪器和试剂,根据实验的目的决定仪器的排列组装顺序,一般遵循 气体制取→除杂→干燥→主体实验→实验产品的保护与尾气处理。其中除杂与干燥的顺序,若采用溶液除杂则应先净化后干燥。尾气处理一般用溶液吸收或将气体点燃。 三、气密性的检查 制气装置一般都存在气密性检查问题。关键是何时进行气密性检查?如何进行气密性 检查?显然应在仪器连接完之后,添加药品之前进行气密性检查。气密性检查的方法虽多 种多样,但总的原则是堵死一头,另一头通过导管插入水中,再微热用掌心或酒精灯容积 较大的玻璃容器,若水中有气泡逸出,停止加热后导管中有一段水柱上升,则表示气密性 良好,否则须重新组装与调试。 四、防倒吸 用溶液吸收气体或排水集气的实验中都要防倒吸。防倒吸一般可分为两种方法:一是 在装置中防倒吸如在装置中加安全瓶或用倒扣的漏斗吸收气体等;二是在加热制气并用排 水集气或用溶液洗气的实验中,实验结束时,应先取出插在溶液中的导管,后熄灭酒精灯 以防倒吸。 五、实验方案的评价 对实验方案的评价应遵循以下原则:①能否达到目的;②所用原料是否常见易得、廉价;③原料的利用率高低;④过程是否简捷优化;⑤有无对环境污染;⑥ 实验的误差大小等等。能达到上述六点要求的实验方案应该说不失为最优实验方案。最优方案的设计应遵循 上述实验方案评价的六原则。方案确定后,为确保实验目的实现,必须选择简捷而正确的 操作程序。

现代分子理论与计算化学导论作业

《现代分子理论与计算化学导论》 ——课程大作业班级:xxxxxxx 姓名:小签牛学号:xxxxxxxxxx 题目:在T*=1.5条件下,分别用分子模拟方法和微扰理论方法计算ρ*=0.02和0.85的体系的压力,并比较两种方法计算 的结果。 Ⅰ.当T*=1.5、ρ*=0.02时的情况 ①由Monte Carlo模拟获得体系的内能、径向分布函数和压力,流 体参数及模拟条件见contrifile文件; 此时的contrifile文件为: ---------------ENTER THE FOLLOWING IN LENNARD-JONES UNITS-------------------- 0.02 # Enter The Density 1.5 # Enter The Temperature 8.0 # Enter The Potential Cutoff Distance 108 # Enter The Intial Molecular Number ---------------ENTER THE SIMULATION STEP CONTROLLING PARAMETES--------------- 200000 # Enter Number Of Cycles 400 # Enter Number Of Steps Between Output Lines 400 # Enter Number Of Steps Between Data Saves 400 # Enter Interval For Update Of Max. Displ. .False. # Whether Read config. From Old Simulation Run config.dat # Enter The Configuration File Name ---------------ENTER THE RADIAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION PARAMETES-------------- .True. # Whether Calculate The Radial Distribution Function 0.01 # Enter The Radial Distribution Distance 100000 # Enter Number Of Cycles Of Start Calculating The Radial Distribution gr0.02.dat # Enter The Radial Distribution File Name (运行程序见附件1) 所得“result.dat”文件中的结果为: A VERAGES = -0.149649

= 0.028542

综合化学实验报告浸渍法

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浸渍法制备Pd/γ-Al2O3催化剂 张宇周超朱军洁 (山西大学化学化工学院,山西太原030006) 摘要:浸渍法是将载体浸泡在含有活性组分(主,助催化剂组分)的可溶性化合物溶液中,接触一定的时间后除去过剩的溶液,再经干燥,焙烧和活化,即可制得催化剂。本实验采用等体积浸渍法制备负载型Pd/γ-Al2O3催化剂。实验中首先测出γ-Al2O3的饱和吸附量,进而计算出采用等体积浸渍法时所需的含有活性组分Pb2+的PbCl2溶液和水的量,然后将载体γ-Al2O3浸泡在适量的含有活性组分Pb2+的PbCl2溶液与适量的水的混合液中,接触一定的时间后,再经干燥,焙烧和活化,即可制得催化剂。 关键字:等体积浸渍法催化剂Pd/γ-Al2O3 0 引言: 固体催化剂的制备方法很多,工业上使用的固体催化剂的制备方法有:沉淀法,浸渍法,机械混合法,离子交换法,熔融等[1]。由于制备方法的不同,尽管原料和用量完全一样,但所制得的催化剂的性能仍可能有很大的差异。

浸渍法是将载体浸泡在含有在活性组分(主,助催化剂组分)的可溶性化合物溶液中,接触一定的时间后除去过剩的溶液,再经干燥,焙烧和活化,即可制得催化剂[2]。由于浸渍法比较经济,且催化剂形状、表面积、孔隙率等主要取决于载体,容易选取。等体积浸渍法是预先测定载体吸入溶液的能力,然后加入正好使载体完全浸渍所需的溶液量,这种方法称为等体积浸渍法。应用这种方法可以省去过滤多余的浸渍溶液的步骤,而且便于控制催化剂中活性组分的含量。因此,本实验采用等体积浸渍法[3][4]制备负载型Pd/γ- Al2O3催化剂。实验中首先测出γ- Al2O3的饱和吸附量,进而计算出采用等体积浸渍法时所需的含有活性组分Pb2+的PbCl2溶液和水的量,然后将载体γ- Al2O3浸泡在适量的含有活性组分Pb2+的PbCl2溶液与适量的水的混合液中,接触一定的时间后,再经干燥,焙烧和活化,即可制得催化剂。 1.载体的选择和浸渍液的配制[5] (1)载体的选择浸渍催化剂的物理性能很大程度上取决于载体的物理性质,载体甚至还影响到催化剂的化学活性。因此正确的选择载体和对载体进行必要的预处理,是采用浸渍法制备催化剂时首先要考虑的问题。载体种类繁多,作用各异,有关载体的选择要从物理因素和化学因素两方面考虑。物理因素指的是颗粒大小,表面积和孔结构。通常采用已成型好的具有一定尺寸和外形的载体进行浸渍,省去催化剂的成型。化学因素指的是载体可分为三种情况:(ⅰ)惰性载体,载体的作用是使活性组份得到适当的分布;(ⅱ)载体与活性组分有相互作用,它使活性组分有良好的分散并趋于稳定,从而改变催化剂的性能(ⅲ)载体具有催化作用,载体除有负载活性组分的功能外,还与所负载的活性组分一起发挥自身的催化作用。 (2)浸渍液的配制进行浸渍时,通常并不是用活性组分本身制成溶液,而是用活性组分金属的易容盐配成溶液,本实验采用PbCl2溶液。所用的活性组分化合物应该是易溶于水的,而且在焙烧时能分解成所需活性组分,或在还原后变成金属活性组分;同时还必须使无用组分,特别是对催化剂有毒的物质在热分解或还原过程中挥发出去。因此常用的是硝酸盐,铵盐,有机盐。一般以去离子水为溶剂,但当载体易溶于水或活性组分不溶于水时,则可用醇或烃作为溶剂。 2.活性组分在载体上的分布与控制[6] 浸渍时溶解在溶剂中含活性组分的盐类(溶质)在载体表面的分布,与载体对溶质和溶剂的吸附性能有很大的关系。

量子化学计算实验详解

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化学实验报告配置氯化钠溶液

化学实验报告配置氯化 钠溶液 文件排版存档编号:[UYTR-OUPT28-KBNTL98-UYNN208]

化学实验报告【实验目的】 1、练习配制一定溶质质量分数或量浓度一定的溶液。 2、加深对溶质的质量分数以及量浓度概念的理解。 【实验器材】 托盘天平、烧杯、玻璃棒、药匙、量筒、胶头滴管。 氯化钠、浓盐酸溶液、蒸馏水、容量瓶、漏斗。 【实验步骤】 1、配置质量分数为6%的氯化钠溶液 (1)计算:配制50g质量分数为6%的氯化钠溶液所需氯化钠和水的质量分别为: NaCl:50g*6%=3g ;水:47g。 (2)称量:用托盘天平称取所需的氯化钠,放入烧杯中。 (3)量取:用量筒量取所需的水(水的密度可近似看作1g/cm3),倒入盛有氯化钠的烧杯中。 (4)溶解:用玻璃棒搅拌,使氯化钠溶解。 2、用已配制好的质量分数为6%的氯化钠溶液(密度约为cm3),配制50g 质量分数为3%的氯化钠溶液。 (1)计算:所得溶液中,氯化钠的质量为50g*3%=,所以需要质量分数为6%的氯化钠溶液25g(体积为26ml),蒸馏水25g(体积约为25ml)(2)量取:用量筒量取所需的氯化钠溶液和水,倒入烧杯中。 (3)混匀:用玻璃棒搅拌,使溶液混合均匀。

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