语言学2017 知识点总结
Unit 1
一：.Important distinction in linguistics
1:prescriptive and descriptive (规范性和描述性）
If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use , it is said to be descriptive.(be in or actually)
If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.(should be)
2:synchronic and diachronic (共识的和历时的）
synchronic is the description of a language at some point of time in history.
diachronic is the description of language as it changes through time.
3.speech and writing
Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons.
https://www.sodocs.net/doc/8a13801613.html,ngue and parole (语言和言语）
Langue refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.
5. Competence and performance （语言的能力和表现）
competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language ;performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
6.t raditional grammar and modern linguistics (传统语法和现代语言学）
二.Design features of language
●arbitrariness(任意性）：it means there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds.
●productivity（生产性）:language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the
construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
●duality（双重性）：language is a system,which consists of two sets of structure of levels.
●displacement(替代性）：language can be used to refers to contexts removed from the
immediate situations of the speaker.
●cultural transmission（文化传递): it is passed on from one generation to the next through
teaching and learning.
Unit 2（重点）
一：the speech organs
lips,teeth,teeth ridge,hard palate,soft palate,uvula,tip of tongue,blade of tongue,back of tongue(most flexible),vocal cords,pharyngeal cavity,nasal cavity
二.phone，phoneme and allophone（音素，音位和音位变体）
Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.
Phoneme is a phonological unit;it is a unit that is of distinctive value, and it is a abstract unit.抽象的概念
Allophones is different phones represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments .
三.phonemic contrast,complementary distribution and minimal pair (音位的对立，互补的分布，最小对位）
If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.
If they are allophones of the same phoneme,they do not distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs
in the same position in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.
3.Morphology形态学
Morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carriers information about meaning or function. Morph:when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may use the term morph
Free morpheme:可单独存在有实际意义boy/read Bound morpheme:必须与其他连用-s.-er Derivational morpheme:改变词意[n→adj] Inflectional morpheme:不改变词性[改变时态-ed] Compounds 合成词
3.Syntax 句法
Phrase structure rule:NP, VP, AP[adjective phrase], PP[prepositional phrase]
XP rule:XP→(specifier)X(complement) X represent the head N,V,A,P and P represent complement
Phrase element s:a. Specifiers--determiner, qualifier, degree words
b. Complements--provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.
c. Modifiers修饰语
5.Semantics语义学→meaning
The naming theory命名论(proposed by Greek scholar Plato): the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for, but this theory seems applicable to nouns only and abstract notion, such as joy and impulse, can not be named.
The conceptualist view概念论: linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind and can name the abstract notion Array semantic triangle/ triangle of significance语意三角
(suggested by Ogden and Richards)
Contextualism语境(J.R.Firth): meaning should be
studied in terms of situation, use, context--elements
closely linked with language behavior.
Behaviorism行为主义(by Bloomfield): situation in
which the speaker utters it and the response it calls
forth in the hearer.
Lexical meaning(词汇意义):a. Sense and reference[sense意义: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized 可以脱离语境./reference所指: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience客观事实存在)
b.major sense relations:①synonymy近义词[dialectal synonyms方言同义词--used in different regional dialects e.g.British English(autumn)&American English(fall)//stylistic synonyms语言的文体同义词，正式程度不同--differing in style e.g.dad, father//synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感态度不同 e.g.collaborator, accomplice//collocational synonyms搭配不同e.g.accuse, accuse..of//semantically different synonyms语义不同e.g.amaze, astound]
②polysemy多义词:have more than one meaning
③homonymy同音异义词
④hyponymy下义词 e.g. superordinate上义--general meaning(animal)//hyponyms下义--specific words(dog, cat)
⑤antonymy反义词[gradable antonyms等级反义词 e.g.middle-aged, elderly//complementary antonyms互补反义词e.g.male,female//relational opposites关系反义词e.g.patient,doctor]
句与句之间的关系:synonymous同义/inconsistent自相矛盾/entails or entailment上下义，一个句子意思包含另一个句子/presupposes or prerequisite预设前途/contradiction一句话前后自相矛盾/semantically anomalous语义异常
Analysis of meaning:https://www.sodocs.net/doc/8a13801613.html,ponential analysis成分分析[a way to analyze lexical meaning]:this approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. e.g.father=+human+adult+animate+male//b.predication analysis述谓分析[[a way to analyze sentence meaning]:predicate谓词+argument论源(除动词以外的)
6.Pragmatics语用学
Definition:it is a study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Pragmatics VS.Semantics:difference--whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered
Context: it determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. The notion of context is first noted by the British linguist John Firth in 1930s, and constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
Speech act theory:a.Austin’s model of speech acts:①made a distinction[constatives陈述--were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable//performatives表达--were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable] ②three acts: locutionary act言内行为(本身意义literal meaning), illocutionary act言外(弦外之意expressthe speaker’s intention), perlocutionary act言后(带来的后果resulting from saying something)
b.Searle’s classification of speech acts:when people are speaking a language, they are doing sth, or performing acts; and the process of linguistic communication consists of a sequence of acts. Illocytionary point:representatives/assertives阐述directives指令commissives承诺expressives表达declarations声明宣告
c.Indirect speech acts: primary speech act--the s peaker’s goal of communication
secondary speech--the means by which he achieves his goals
Principle of conversation会话原则[by Grice]: conventional implicature规约含义(是一个群体的规范惯例，说话时大家都能理解)//particularized conversational implicature特殊会话含义(当新的信息出现，寻找特殊会话含义)
Cooperative Principle(CP)[by Grice]:
The maxim of quantity数量原则:make your contribution as informative as required/do not make your contribution more informative than is required
The maxim of quality质量原则: do not say what you believe to be false/ do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
The maxim of relation关系原则:be relevant
The maxim of manner方式原则:avoid obscurity of expression/ avoid ambiguity/ be brief/ be orderly
Chapter7 Language Change
Lexical and semantic change:词汇和语义变化
●Addition of new words
1)Coinage新造字及词语（Kodak）
2)Clipped words省略词（gym-gymnasium）
3)Blending合成词（smog=smoke+fog）
4)Acronyms首字母缩写（CEO=chief executive officer）
5)Back-formation逆构词（to donate-derived from donation）
6)Functional shift词性转变
7)Borrowing借用（外来语）
●Loss of words（beseem-to be suitable）
●Semantic changes
1)Semantic broadening词义变宽（holiday）
2)Semantic narrowing词义变窄（meat）
3)Semantic shift词义变化（lust）
The causes of language change
●The rapid development of science and technology
●Social and political changes and political needs
●Women have taken up activities
●The way children acquire a language
●“Economy of memory”which results in grammar simplification
Chapter8 Language and Society
Three types of speech variety:话语群体\共同体
Regional dialects, sociolects, registers
Varieties of language语言变体
●Dialectal varieties
1)Regional dialect方言变体
2)Sociolect社会方言
3)Language and gender
4)Language and age
5)Idiolect个人习语
6)Ethnic dialect种族方言
●Register语域
Halliday’s register theory:The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.
分类：field of discourse语域、语场tenor of discourse 语旨mode of discourse 语式
Eg: a lecture on biology in a technical college
Field: scientific Tenor: teacher-students(formal-polite) Mode: oral(academic lecturing)
Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other. Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication.
Pidgin and Creole洋泾浜语和克里奥尔语
A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole. Bilingualism and diglossia双语（类别）和双言（体裁）
Two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes, this constitutes the situation of bilingualism. Diglossia: in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.
Chapter9 Language and Culture
The relationship between language and culture
Language symbolizes cultural reality.
Diachronically, any culture has its focus on how the social group represents itself, its technological achievements, monuments and works of art; synchronically, its historical identity is recorded and passed down by the pop culture.
Culture also affects a discourse community’s imagination, or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their behavior and life.
The relation of language and culture is that of part to whole.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:
Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way the categorize their experiences.This interdependence of language and thought is now known as SWH.
Three forms of culture contact are identified: acculturation, assimilation, and amalgamation. Acculturation is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one group’s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.文化适应，外来文化有力量，自己适应外来的。
Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society. 同化，吸收，自己文化强，外来的适应自己的。Amalgamation occurs when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by another.融合，混合，两个文化势力相当。
Culture overlap between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.
Culture imperialism（文化入侵）,owing to linguistic imperialism which is a kind of linguicism-the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language.
#小孩的言语习得
1.行为主义a behaviorist view of language acquisition:语言是模仿，反复强化得到的（这一理论解释不了我们的创造力）language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation
2.天生主义an innatist view of language acquisition:Chomsky proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability known as Language acquisition device(LAD)
3.互动主义an interactionist view of language acquisition : language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.
#关键时期假说critical period hypothesis(举例：狼孩）
LAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time, a specific and limited time period for language acquisition, which is referred to the critical period hypothesis(CPH)
#母语习得和第二外语习得的关系
1.relationship:the studies on the first language acquisition have influenced enormously those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and practical levels. The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning.
2.interlanguage中介语：母语和外语之间的语言—我们所使用的会出现错误的语言
an abstract system of learner’s target language system and it has now been abstract system of learns’ language system and it has now been widely u sed to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce,especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones
Input Hyothesis输入假说(by Krashen)--the learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensive input”, Krashen defines it as “i+1”
#neurolinguistics神经语言学
含义：is the study of two related areas:language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language.
#psycholinguistics心理语言学
含义：is the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language
语言学概论试题及答案
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1. 在二十世纪，对哲学、人类学、心理学、社会学等学科产生重大影响 的语言学流派是（） A.历史比较语言学 B.心理语言学 C.结构主义语言学 D.社会语言学 2. “人有人言，兽有兽语”中的“言”属于（） A.语言 B.言语 C.言语行为 D.言语作品 3. “我爱家乡”中“爱”和“家乡”（） A.是聚合关系。 B.是组合关系。 C.既是聚合关系又是组合关系。 D. 4. 一种语言中数量最少的是 A.音素 B.音位 C.语素 D.音节 5. 英语的man—→men采用的语法手段是 A. 屈折变化 B.变换重音的位置 C. 变化中缀 D.异根 6. 在汉语普通话中没有意义区别功能的声学特征是（） A.音高 B.音强 C.音长 D.音质 7. [ε]的发音特征是 A.舌面前高不圆唇 B.舌面后高不圆唇 C.舌面前半高不圆唇 D.舌面前半低不圆唇 8. 构成“语言、身体”这两个词的语素的类型（） A.都是成词语素 B.都是不成词语素 C.“语”和“言”是成词语素，“身”和“体”是不成词语素 D.“语”和“言”是不成词语素，“身”和“体” 9. 广义地说，汉语动词词尾“着”、“了”、“过”属于语法范畴中的 （）
热力学复习知识点汇总
概 念 部 分 汇 总 复 习 第一章 热力学的基本规律 1、热力学与统计物理学所研究的对象：由大量微观粒子组成的宏观物质系统 其中所要研究的系统可分为三类 孤立系：与其他物体既没有物质交换也没有能量交换的系统； 闭系：与外界有能量交换但没有物质交换的系统； 开系：与外界既有能量交换又有物质交换的系统。 2、热力学系统平衡状态的四种参量：几何参量、力学参量、化学参量和电磁参量。 3、一个物理性质均匀的热力学系统称为一个相；根据相的数量，可以分为单相系和复相系。 4、热平衡定律(热力学第零定律）：如果两个物体各自与第三个物体达到热平衡，它们彼此也处在热平衡. 5、符合玻意耳定律、阿氏定律和理想气体温标的气体称为理想气体。 6、范德瓦尔斯方程是考虑了气体分子之间的相互作用力（排斥力和吸引力）,对理想气体状态方程作了修正之后的实际气体的物态方程。 7、准静态过程：过程由无限靠近的平衡态组成，过程进行的每一步，系统都处于平衡态。 8、准静态过程外界对气体所作的功：，外界对气体所作的功是个过程量。 9、绝热过程：系统状态的变化完全是机械作用或电磁作用的结果而没有受到其他影响。绝热过程中内能U 是一个态函数： A B U U W -= 10、热力学第一定律（即能量守恒定律）表述：任何形式的能量，既不能消灭也不能创造，只能从一种形 式转换成另一种形式，在转换过程中能量的总量保持恒定；热力学表达式：Q W U U A B +=-；微分 形式：W Q U d d d += 11、态函数焓H ：pV U H +=，等压过程：V p U H ?+?=?，与热力学第一定律的公式一比较 即得：等压过程系统从外界吸收的热量等于态函数焓的增加量。 12、焦耳定律：气体的内能只是温度的函数，与体积无关，即)(T U U =。 13．定压热容比：p p T H C ??? ????=；定容热容比：V V T U C ??? ????= 公式：nR C C V p =- 14、绝热过程的状态方程： const =γpV ；const =γ TV ； const 1 =-γ γT p 。 15、卡诺循环过程由两个等温过程和两个绝热过程组成。正循环为卡诺热机，效率2 11T T - =η，逆循环 为卡诺制冷机，效率为2 11T T T -= η （只能用于卡诺热机）。 16、热力学第二定律：克劳修斯表述：不可能把热量从低温物体传到高温物体 而不引起其他变化（表明热传导过程是不可逆的）； 开尔文（汤姆孙）表述：不可能从单一热源吸收热量使之完全变成有用的功而不引起其他变化（表明功变热的过程是不可逆的）； 另一种开氏表述：第二类永动机不可能造成的。 17、无摩擦的准静态过程是可逆过程。 18、卡诺定理：所有工作于两个一定温度T 1与T 2之间的热机，以可逆机的效率为最高。并且所有的可逆机 的效率η都相等21 1T T - =η ，与工作物质无关，只与热源温度有关。 19、热机的效率：1 21Q Q -=η，Q 1为热机从高温热源吸收的热量，Q 2 为热机在低温热源放出的热量。 20、克劳修斯等式与不等式：02 211≤+T Q T Q 。 21、可逆热力学过程0=?T dQ ，不可逆热力学过程0
语言学重点概念总结
Design features（定义特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共时的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描写式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（语言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:
the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue（语言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole（言语）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology（音系学）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include
简明英语语言学知识点汇总
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;
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语言学概论试题及答案
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知识点热力学与料热力学部分
知识点热力学与料热力学部分
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一、单项选择题（每小题1分，共20分） 在下列每小题的四个备选答案中选出一个正确的答 1. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?__________ A. tree B. crash C. typewriter D. bang 2. ________ made the distinction between competence and performance. A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Bloomfield D. Sapir 3. Conventionally a ______ is put in slashes. A. allophone B. phone C. phoneme D. morpheme 4. The word “hospitalize” is an example of __________. A. compound B. derivation C. inflection D. blending 5. Constituent sentences is the term used in ___________. A. structural linguistics B. functional analysis C. TG Grammar D. traditional grammar 6. Cold and hot is a pair of ___________ antonyms. A. gradable B. complementary C. reversal D. converse 7. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called________. A. commissives B. directives C. expressive D. declaratives 8. Speech variety may be used instead of _______. A. vernacular language, dialect, pidgin, creole B. standard language C. both A and B D. none of the above 9.______ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced. A. Sociolinguistics B. Psycholinguistics C. Pragmatics D. Morphology 10. Discovering procedures are practiced by ________. A. descriptive grammar B. TC Grammar C. traditional grammar D. functional grammar 11. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade” is _________. A. interrogative B. directive C. informative D. performative
传热学知识点总结
Φ-=B A c t t R 1211k R h h δλ=++传热学与工程热力学的关系： a 工程热力学研究平衡态下热能的性质、热能与机械能及其他形式能量之间相互转换的规律， 传热学研究过程和非平衡态热量传递规律。 b 热力不考虑热量传递过程的时间，而传热学时间是重要参数。 c 传热学以热力学第一定律和第二定律为基础。 传热学研究内容 传热学是研究温差引起的热量传递规律的学科，研究热量传递的机理、规律、计算和测试方法。 热传导 a 必须有温差 b 直接接触 c 依靠分子、原子及自由电子等微观粒子热运动而传递热量，不发生宏观的相对位移 d 没有能量形式的转化 热对流 a 必须有流体的宏观运动，必须有温差； b 对流换热既有对流，也有导热； c 流体与壁面必须直接接触； d 没有热量形式之间的转化。 热辐射： a 不需要物体直接接触，且在真空中辐射能的传递最有效。 b 在辐射换热过程中，不仅有能量的转换，而且伴随有能量形式的转化。 c ．只要温度大于零就有．．．．．．．．．能量．．辐射。．．． d ．物体的．．．辐射能力与其温度性质．．．．．．．．．．有关。．．． 传热热阻与欧姆定律 在一个串联的热量传递的过程中，如果通过各个环节的热流量相同，则各串联环节的的总热阻等于各串联环节热阻之和（I 总=I1+I2，则R 总=R1+R2） 第二章 温度场：描述了各个时刻．．．．物体内所有各点．．．．的温度分布。 稳态温度场：：稳态工作条件下的温度场，此时物体中个点的温度不随时间而变 非稳态温度场：工作条件变动的温度场，温度分布随时间而变。 等温面：温度场中同一瞬间相同各点连成的面 等温线：在任何一个二维的截面上等温面表现为 肋效率：肋片的实际散热量ф与假设整个肋表面．．．处于肋基温度．．．．时的理想散热量ф0 之比 接触热阻 Rc :壁与壁之间真正完全接触，增加了附加的传递阻力 三类边界条件 第一类：规定了边界上的温度值 第二类：规定了边界上的热流密度值 第三类：规定了边界上物体与周围流体间的表面．．传热系数．．．．h 及周围．．流体的温度．．．．． 。 导热微分方程所依据的基本定理 傅里叶定律和能量守恒定律 傅里叶定律及导热微分方程的适用范围 适用于：热流密度不是很高，过程作用时间足够长，过程发生的空间尺度范围足够大 不适用的：a 当导热物体温度接近0k 时b 当过程作用时间极短时c 当过成发生的空间尺度极小，与微观粒子的平均自由程相接近时
语言学重点概念总结
Desig n features （定义特征）： the disti nctive features of huma n Ian guage that esse ntially make huma n Ian guage disti nguishable from Ian guages of ani mals. Synchronic （共时的）： said of an approach that studies Ianguage at a theoretical point "in time. Diachro nic （历时的）： said of the study of developme nt of Ian guage and Ian guages over time. Prescriptive （规定式）： to make an authoritaria n stateme nt about the correct ness of a particular use of Ian guage. Descriptive （描写式）： to make an objective and systematic acco unt of the patter ns and use of a Ian guage or variety. Compete nee （语言能力）： uncon scious kno wledge of the system of grammatical rules in a Ian guage. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。 Performa nee （语言运用）： the Ianguage actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue （语言）： the Ianguage system shared by a speech community ” 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole （言语）： the con crete uttera nces of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Pho no logy （音系学）： the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guage. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in Ianguages, and to explain the variati ons that occur. Intern ati onal Phon etic Alphabet （国际音标） a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart （the IPA chart）, designed by the Intern ati onal Phon etic Associati on si nee 1888. It has bee n revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. Cardi nal Vowels （基本元音）： a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the descriptio n of the actual vowels of exist ing Ian guages.
语言学期末复习资料整理版
Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period
语言学重点总结
Chapter 6 Cognition is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. There exist three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach and the conceptual approach. The Formal approach basically addresses the structural patterns exhibited by the overt aspect of linguistic forms, largely abstracted away from or regarded as autonomous from any associated meaning. The Psychological approach looks at language from the perspective of relatively general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, and attention to reasoning. The conceptual approach is concerned with the patterns in which and the processes by which conceptual content is organized in language. Structure will be used to refer both to patterns and to process, the conceptual approach can more simply be said to address how language structures conceptual content. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activities associated with the use of language. Six aspects of research within psycholinguistics: ①Acquisition ②Comprehension ③Production ④Disorders ⑤Language and thought ⑥Neurocognition Language acquisition: ①Holophrastic stage ②Two-word stage ③Stage of three-word utterances ④Fluent grammatical conversation stage Connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations