英语文体学教程
Chapter1
1, what is style in your opinion according to what we have studied in this chapter?
Anwser1 , from the perspective of the content, the events and activities described ,style is saying different things in different ways ;from the perspective of the ways of expression used ,styled is same thing in different ways; from the perspective of the users of language ,style is different speakers using language in different ways; and from the perspective of the text ,style is the functions of texts for different purposes.
Anwser2, the definition of style is the concept of style as choice .this definition can have at least too interpretations .one is that first we have a pre-existing thought ,and then we choice the appropriate type of expression to express it in language. The chosen expression is the style .another is that the choice refers to the choice of meaning. The choice of language is at the same time a choice of meaning and a choice of style .
2,what is the significance of studying the style of language in learning and teaching English?
Anwser, the answer is that if we want to use language appropriately in different situations , we need to study style .as foreign language learners, if we disregard the rules of using what variety of language in what occasion , or fail to obey them through ignorance , language can become instead a barrier to successful communication . Therefore its necessary to have a clear awareness of how language should be used in different types of situations especially in unfamiliar situations.
3, what factors can result in differences in style ?
Answer , 1, the different types of vocabulary create different images of the events in the reader’s mind, so they can result in different styles.2,people living in different periods of time in history will also speak differently ,and that will result in a different style.
Chapter2
1, explain the following terms
1),foregrounding: the stylistically significant features have to be prominent and motivated ,that is ,foregrounded.
2),incongruity: the linguistic features depart from the normal use of language ,breaking the rules grammar ,spelling ,pronunciation.
3)deflection : the linguistic features don’t depart from the established grammatical, lexical and logical rules and principles ,but have an unexpected high frequency of occurrence.
4),field; its concerned with what is happening ,including the subject matter,the events happenings,going-ons, the content ,etc
5)tenor: its concerned with who is taking part in the exchange of meaning ----the relationship between the speaker and the listener ,their relative status,their attitude,and their role relations .
6)mode: its concerned with how the interaction is conducted ,that is whether it is written or spoken ,or whether it is expressed by phonic substance or graphic substance.
2,question for discussion
2)in rhetorical series,the number of items can influence the stylistic effect.try to analyze the causes on the basis of social culture.
Answer :different numbers of words can produce different stylistic effects in the appropriate contexts. Two items express assertion ,that is ,it is just this ,not that .In appropriate situations three items can produce ethic ,persuasive, and representative effect. Four or more items in a
series stress a large number of the concrete things ,and these can produce an imagery in the mind of the reader that the large amount of things constitutes a significant situation in which certain aspect are highlighted. Another function of the rhetorical series is to use concrete items to highlight abstract concepts so that the abstract concept can be expressed in concrete ,lively and vivid way to enhance the aesthetic value of language.
3)what factors affect the writer’s selection of words and style
Answer : five criteria for the selection of words :whether they are familiar or not familiar, whether they are concrete or abstract, whether they are single or more ,whether they are short and simple. Or long. Whether they are Anglo –saxon words or latin words .field ,tenor ,mode affect the writer’s selection of style.
4)what is the criterion used to classify words
Answer :we can use more systematic way to classify word according to register and dialect .register:field ,tenor , mode .dialect: regional dialect,such as London dialect;social dialect such as dialect of age, race,etc.temporal dialect such as od English .
5)through what channels can words be used to achieve transferred meaning?
Answer :simile :x is like Y, eg as busy as bee. Metaphor: X is Y ,eg he is a pig.
Synecdoche eg many hands represent the people who work with their hands . Metonymy eg purse represent money.
Chapter3
1,explain the following terms
1),chiasmus:chiasmus is formed by inverting the word order of the second part of a parallel structure,so it forms a kind of antithetical structure. Eg:let us never negotiate out of fear,but let us never fear to negotiate.
2)antistrophe: it is the repetition of the same items but in inverted order ,eg:what’s polly to me,or me to polly?
3)epizeuxis:it is a continuous repetition for high lighting a particular feature.
4)ploce: the repetition is not continuous , but intermittent or dispersed in the text.
5)loose sentence: put the major idea first and than the illustration .such a sentence is easy to grasp .
6)periodic sentence:a periodic sentence can be used to create suspense,or expectation, thus drawing the listener’s attention to the end of the sentence.it can be used to produce humorous and emphatic effect .
2,question for discussion
1),there are many types of syntactic deflection ,but they have one thing in common :recurrence of structures. How is syntactic deflection classified?
Answer :there are two type of syntactic deflection :the unexpected high frequency of occurrence of a certain type of sentence; and the overregular occurrence of a particular pattern .
2)the high frequency of occurrence of long and short sentence can create stylistic effect .apart from the difference in expressive meanings ,what are other characteristics of the two types of sentences?
Answer : long sentences are good to provide the detailed descriptions ,and are good to reveal the mental activities of the speaker .so they are used to produce a vivid, rich, exuberant, luxurious
style. Short sentence：can produce direct ,terse ,concise ,clear effect or continuous ,compact ,swift effect ,so that it creates certain atmosphere , and leave a deep impression on the listeners.
3) why do writers often violate the rule of grammar? What do we cal this violation?
Answer: we call this violation syntactic incongruity .the violation of the grammatical rules can be used to produce certain stylistic effects. The so-called ungrammatical sentences are used to represent the different varieties of language according to register and dialect. In literary works, dialectical and personal features of speech are often used to depict the personality of the characters. In poetry, the poet often uses deviant grammatical structures to achieve special effects, makes lines terse and concise, to make it rich in meaning.
4)what is the function of rhetorical questions?
Answer: A rhetorical question is to use the form of a question in order to express a strong emotion or to emphasize a particular aspect. The function of inverted sentence is to make a declarative sentence more powerful, to attract the listener’s attention, or to induce others’ sympathy. Arranged in parallelism, rhetorical questions can express strong emotions
and increase the persuasive power. A rhetorical question can also introduce the topic of the text.
5) In what ways can we use inverted sentences to achieve emphatic effect?
Answer: to change the normal word order can be used to produce some emphatic effect. What is put to the initial part of the sentence is usually the focus of information of the clause and also the theme of he clause. So it is highlighted.
Chapter4
1 explain the following terms
1)Synaesthesia: it refers to the fact that sounds s are attributed
with certain values or esthetic features. It is very casual, and supported by situational features and meaning.
2)Alliteration: refers to the repetition of the initial sound
usually a consonant, or a vowel at first position, in two or more words that occur close together.
3)Assonance: refers to the use of the same or related vowel
sounds in successive words. It can create harmonious effect.
4)Consonance: refers to the repetition of the last consonants of
the stresses words at the end of the lines.
2 questions for discussion
1)What are the characteristic of spoken language and written
language respectively?
Answer: spoken language: 1 it can directly be accompanied by other non-linguistic means as the aid; 2 it is generally speaking not as formal as written language; 3 it permits errors in the process of production; 4 it uses a particular grammar, a grammar characteristics of spoken language. 5 homophones can be used for special stylistic effects, such as pun; 6 some implications are best represented by special sound features; 7 sound feature can represent the feature of regional dialect or social dialect.
Written language:1 as written language communication is usually not a direct one, but is delayed in time and at different places, the writer generally has time to get well prepared and revise the text before he sends it out to the reader;2 as space is limited, it has special grammatical features so as to put more meaning in it .there are many nominalizations to make sentences into groups;3 written language is often used in a more formal situation; 4 as time is enough, it is usually written in a more
detailed and logical way;5 as written language is more purposeful, and for a single specific goal, it is usually more constant and developed around a single subject.
2)How many sound patterns do we have? What special
stylistic effects can be achieved by them?
Answer: these sound patterns include alliteration which can create harmony, connection and achieve special stylistic effects, assonance which can create harmonious effect, and consonance
3)What factors can influence graphological prominence? .
Answer: there are three distinctive factors that can produce graphological prominence: marking, spacing and sequence. Marking refers to the use of written symbols to convey information; space is spacing arrangement departing from this normal way of spacing can be used to achieve stylistic effects.
4 In modern English, punctuation marks are patterned and standardized. How can we use punctuation marks for special stylistic purpose?
Answer: period typically occurs at the end of a declarative sentence. If period occurs in unexpected high frequency of occurrence, it often means that the text mainly functions to provide information; comma is used to mark the unit larger than a word, however, in Charles Dickens’ Dombey and Son, comma is used to indicate syllables; exclamation marks can be used to carry emotional coloring, a mark of expressing special feelings; parentheses are used for further explanation; the ellipsis of punctuation marks produces an illogical and non-sequential image.
Chapter7
1 explain the following terms
1）Guide: guide is the further explanation of the headline, it consists of six elements; location, character, event, mode, time, and cause.
2）Nominalization: refers to a grammatical phenomenon in which the meaning which is normally expressed by a clause is here expressed by a phrase, so clause nominalization is normal. It is contracted.
3）The highlighting method: from the productive point of view, the columnist can publish the whole story, or he can cut off some parts from the end. He can even cut off the main body.
4）Meaning contraction: using the smallest form to get the most meaning.
5）Journalese words: as new report requires the speaker to use the least form to get the most meaning, and it has to be fresh and attractive, so the words in news report is short and new.
2 questions for discussion
1) What are semantic features of news report?
Answer:1 In terms of ideational meaning, apart from the semantic field of news report, it covers virtually all areas of meaning systems ;2 in terms of interpersonal meaning, it stresses objectivity;3 in terms of textual meaning, it has the feature of meaning contraction.
3) Most of the headlines are elliptical sentences. Tell in what way ellipsis is best achieve in news report.
Answer: most of the headlines are elliptical sentences. What is omitted is: (a) subject-predicate (b) predicate (c) link verb or auxiliary verb
4) How is meaning contraction of news report embodied in grammar?