建筑-外文翻译讲解学习
外文文献：
Risk Analysis of the International Construction Project
By: Paul Stanford Kupakuwana
Cost Engineering Vol. 51/No. 9 September 2009
ABSTRACT
This analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong.
KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof
trusses. The building construction proceeded to completion and was handed over to the owners on Sept. 12, 1991. The SAZ took effective occupation of the headquarters building without a certificate of occupation. Also, the defects liability period was only three months .
The roof structure was in place 10 years before partial failure in December 1999. The building insurance coverage did not cover enough, the City of Harare, a government municipality, issued the certificate of occupation 10 years after occupation, and after partial collapse of the roof .
At first the SAZ decided to go to arbitration, but this failed to yield an immediate solution. The SAZ then decided to proceed to litigate in court and to bring a negligence claim against CABCO. The preparation for arbitration was reused for litigation. The SAZ’s quantified losses stood at approximately $ 6 million in Zimbabwe dollars (US $1.2m) .
After all parties had examined the facts and evidence before them, it became clear that there was a great probability that the courts might rule that both the architects and the contractor were liable. It was at this stage that the defendants’ lawye rs requested that the matter be settled out of court. The plaintiff agreed to this suggestion, with the terms of the settlement kept confidential .
The aim of this critical analysis was to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of the building housing the HQ of Standard Association of Zimbabwe. It examined the prior roles played by the project management function and construction professionals in preventing/mitigating potential construction problems. It further assessed the extent to which the employer/client and parties to a construction contract are able to recover damages under that contract. The main objective of this critical analysis was to identify an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. The importance of this study is its multidimensional examination approach.
Experience suggests that participants in a project are well able to identify risks based on their own experience. The adoption of a risk management approach, based solely in past experience and dependant on judgement, may work reasonably well in a stable low risk environment. It is unlikely to be effective where there is a change. This is because change requires the extrapolation of past experience, which could be misleading. All construction projects are prototypes to some extent and imply change. Change in the construction industry itself suggests that past experience is unlikely to be sufficient on its own. A structured approach is required. Such a structure can not and must not replace the experience and expertise of the participant. Rather, it brings additional benefits that assist to clarify objectives, identify the nature of the uncertainties, introduces effective communication systems, improves decision-making, introduces effective risk control measures, protects the project objectives and provides knowledge of the risk history .
Construction professionals need to know how to balance the contingencies of risk with their specific contractual, financial, operational and organizational requirements. Many construction professionals look at risks in dividually with a myopic lens and do not realize the potential impact that other associated risks may have on their business operations. Using a holistic risk management approach will enable a fi rm to identify all of the organization’s business risks. This will increase the probability of risk mitigation, with the ultimate goal of total risk elimination .
Recommended key construction and risk management strategies for future construction projects have been considered and their explanation follows. J.W. Hinchey stated that there is and can be no ‘best practice’ standard for risk allocation on a high-profile project or for that matter, any project. He said, instead, successful risk management is a mind-set and a process. According to Hinchey, the ideal mind-set is for the parties and their representatives to, first, be intentional about identifying project risks and then to proceed to develop a systematic and comprehensive
process for avoiding, mitigating, managing and finally allocating, by contract, those risks in optimum ways for the particular project. This process is said to necessarily begin as a science and ends as an art .
According to D. Atkinson, whether contractor, consultant or promoter, the right team needs to be assembled with the relevant multi-disciplinary experience of that particular type of project and its location. This is said to be necessary not only to allow alternative responses to be explored. But also to ensure that the right questions are asked and the major risks identified. Heads of sources of risk are said to be a convenient way of providing a structure for identifying risks to completion of a participant’s part of the project. Effective risk management is said to require a multi-disciplinary approach. Inevitably risk management requires examination of engineering, legal and insurance related solutions .
It is stated that the use of analytical techniques based on a statistical approach could be of enormous use in decision making . Many of these techniques are said to be relevant to estimation of the consequences of risk events, and not how allocation of risk is to be achieved. In addition, at the present stage of the development of risk management, Atkinson states that it must be recognized that major decisions will be made that can not be based solely on mathematical analysis. The complexity of construction projects means that the project definition in terms of both physical form and organizational structure will be based on consideration of only a relatively small number of risks . This is said to then allow a general structured approach that can be applied to any construction project to increase the awareness of participants .
The new, simplified Construction Design and Management Regulations(CDM Regulations) which came in to force in the UK in April 2007, revised and brought together the existing CDM 1994 and the Construction Health Safety and Welfare(CHSW) Regulations 1996, into a single regulatory package.
The new CDM regulations offer an opportunity for a step change in health and safety performance and are used to reemphasize the health, safety and broader business benefits of a well-managed and co-ordinated approach to the management of health and safety in construction.
I believe that the development of these skills is imperative to provide the client with the most effective services available, delivering the best value project possible.
Construction Management at Risk (CM at Risk), similar to established private sector methods of construction contracting, is gaining popularity in the public sector. It is a process that allows a client to select a construction manager (CM) based on qualifications; make the CM a member of a collaborative project team; centralize responsibility for construction under a single contract; obtain a bonded guaranteed maximum price; produce a more manageable, predictable project; save time and money; and reduce risk for the client, the architect and the CM.
CM at Risk, a more professional approach to construction, is taking its place along with design-build, bridging and the more traditional process of design-bid-build as an established method of project delivery.
The AE can review the CM’s approach to the work, making helpful recommendations. The CM is allowed to take bids or proposals from subcontractors during completion of contract documents, prior to the guaranteed maximum price (GMP), which reduces the CM’s risk and provides useful input to design. The procedure is more methodical, manageable, predictable and less risky for all.
The procurement of construction is also more business-like. Each trade contractor has a fair shot at being the low bidder without fear of bid shopping. Each must deliver the best to get the projec. Competition in the community is more equitable: all subcontractors have a fair shot at the work .
A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.
There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.
A contingency within the GMP covers unexpected but justifiable costs, and a contingency above the GMP allows for client changes. As long as the subcontractors are within the GMP they are reimbursed to the CM, so the CM represents the client in negotiating inevitable changes with subcontractors.
There can be similar problems where each party in a project is separately insured. For this reason a move towards project insurance is recommended. The traditional approach reinforces adversarial attitudes, and even provides incentives for people to overlook or conceal risks in an attempt to avoid or transfer responsibility.
It was reasonable to assume that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It did appear justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects.
In many projects clients do not understand the importance of their role in facilitating cooperation and coordination; the design is prepared without discussion between designers, manufacturers, suppliers and contractors. This means that the designer can not take advantage of suppliers’ or contractors’ knowledge of build ability or maintenance requirements and the impact these have on sustainability, the total cost of ownership or health and safety .
建筑结构设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Create and comprehensive technology in the structure global design of the building The 21st century will be the era that many kinds of disciplines technology coexists , it will form the enormous motive force of promoting the development of building , the building is more and more important too in global design, the architect must seize the opportunity , give full play to the architect's leading role, preside over every building engineering design well. Building there is the global design concept not new of architectural design,characteristic of it for in an all-round way each element not correlated with building- there aren't external environment condition, building , technical equipment,etc. work in coordination with, and create the premium building with the comprehensive new technology to combine together. The premium building is created, must consider sustainable development , namely future requirement , in other words, how save natural resources as much as possible, how about protect the environment that the mankind depends on for existence, how construct through high-quality between architectural design and building, in order to reduce building equipment use quantity and
建筑类外文文献及中文翻译
forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.
建筑学毕业专业外文翻译文献doc资料
本科毕业设计（外文翻译） 题目居住区交往空间规划与设计 院（系部）xxx学院 专业名称xx 年级班级xx 学生姓名xx 指导教师xx xx 年xx 月x 日 Planning and Design of Association Space of residential District
Xia dong liang 【Abstract】:The association space refers to the indoor and outdoor space for communication between residents.The article presents an overall discussion of the necessity，hierarchy and functionality of association space,with a wish to create positive and healthy association atmosphere and stimulate good communication among residents so that the residential area can become a homeland full of love and harmony． 【Keyword】:residential area；association space；necessity；hierarchy；Functionality 【Foreword】：As the housing system reform and the rapid development of real estate, urban residential areas large urban settlements have emerged on the layout of residential buildings, public buildings, public green space, life and living facilities such as roads, to provide urban residents live in the community and The establishment, is an integral part of the city. Exchanges between the living room area residents is to communicate and exchange of indoor and outdoor space. At this stage, people's living standards greatly improved the living environment of continuous improvement district. Developers should not only focus on residential construction and the reasonable comfort, paying greater attention to the construction of residential environment. However, the current environment in the construction of residential areas, they are often the natural ecology of greening the environment is much more to consider, and the promotion of exchanges between the residents of the space environment to consider less, environmental construction can not meet the occupants of the psychological characteristics and needs. From the basic physiological needs gradually to meet the psychological and cultural fields of promoting a higher level, the residential area is not only the function of living, but also people's thinking and feelings of the local exchange. Therefore, the strengthening of exchanges between the residential areas of space construction, increase residential neighbourhood affinity, should be developed in the planning and construction of residential areas should also consider the issue. How to conduct exchanges between the residential areas of space planning and design, improve people's quality of life, the author of his own real estate development
土木工程外文文献翻译
专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并
不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。
建筑学专业毕业设计方案外文翻译二44
毕业设计英文资料翻译 Tran slati on ofthe En glish Docume nts for Graduati on Desig n 课题名称_____________________________________ 院< 系）_____________________________________ 专业 _____________________________________ 姓名 _____________________________________ 学号 _____________________________________ 起讫日期 _____________________________________ 指导教师 _____________________________________ 2018 年2月25日 原文: Abstract：Gree n buildi ng refers to do its best to maximize con servati on of resources (en ergy, land, water, and wood> , protecti ng the environment and reduce polluti on in its life cycle. Provide people with healthy, appropriate and efficient use of space, and nature in harmony symbiosis buildings. Idescribed more details of green building design ' notion, green building ' design, as well as the sig ni fica nee of the con
框架结构设计外文翻译
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 系：机械工程系 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Design of prestressed (用外文写) concrete structures 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 8-2简支梁布局 一个简单的预应力混凝土梁由两个危险截面控制：最大弯矩截面和端截面。这两部分设计好之后，中间截面一定要单独检查，必要时其他部位也要单独调查。最大弯矩截面在以下两种荷载阶段为控制情况，即传递时梁受最小弯矩M G的初始阶段和最大设计弯矩M T时的工作荷载阶段。而端截面则由抗剪强度、支承垫板、锚头间距和千斤顶净空所需要的面积来决定。所有的中间截面是由一个或多个上述要求，根它们与上述两种危险截面的距离来控制。对于后张构件的一种常见的布置方式是在最大弯矩截面采用诸如I形或T形的截面，而在接近梁端处逐渐过渡到简单的矩形截面。这就是人们通常所说的后张构件的端块。对于用长线法生产的先张构件，为了便于生产，全部只用一种等截面，其截面形状则可以为I形、双T形或空心的。在第5 、 6 和7章节中已经阐明了个别截面的设计，下面论述简支梁钢索的总布置。 梁的布置可以用变化混凝土和钢筋的办法来调整。混凝土的截面在高度、宽度、形状和梁底面或者顶面的曲率方面都可以有变化。而钢筋只在面积方面有所变化，不过在相对于混凝土重心轴线的位置方面却多半可以有变化。通过调整这些变化因素，布置方案可能有许多组合，以适应不同的荷载情况。这一点是与钢筋混凝土梁是完全不同的，在钢筋混凝土梁的通常布置中，不是一个统一的矩形截面便是一个统一的T形，而钢筋的位置总是布置得尽量靠底面纤维。 首先考虑先张梁，如图 8-7，这里最好采用直线钢索，因为它们在两个台座之间加力比较容易。我们先从图（a）的等截面直梁的直线钢索开始讨论。这样的布置都很简单，但这样一来，就不是很经济的设计了，因为跨中和梁端的要求会产生冲突。通常发生在跨度中央的最大弯矩截面中的钢索，最好尽量放低，以便尽可能提供最大力臂而提供最大的内部抵制力矩。当跨度中央的梁自重弯矩M G相当大时，就可以把c.g.s布置在截面核心范围以下很远的地方，而不致在传递时在顶部纤维中引起拉应力。然而对于梁端截面却有一套完全不同的要求。由于在梁端没有外力矩，因为在最后的时刻，安排钢索要以c.g.s与 c.g.c在结束区段一致，如此同样地获得克服压力分配的方法。无论如何，如果张应力在最后不能承受，放置 c.g.s.
建筑学 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 绿色建筑
原文： DOCTORAL FORUM NA TIONAL JOURNAL FOR PUBLISHING AND MENTORING DOCTORAL STUDENT RESEARCH VOLUME 7, NUMBER 1, 2010 Green buildings Priscilla D. Johnson PhD Student in Educational Leadership Whitlowe R. Green College of Education Prairie View A&M University Prairie View, Texas William Allan Kritsonis, PhD Professor and Faculty Mentor PhD Program in Educational Leadership Whitlowe R. Green College of Education Prairie View A&M University Member of the Texas A&M University System Prairie View, Texas Hall of Honor (2008) William H. Parker Leadership Academy, Graduate School Prairie View A&M University Member of the Texas A&M University System Prairie View, Texas Visiting Lecturer (2005) Oxford Round Table University of Oxford Oxford, England Distinguished Alumnus (2004) College of Education and Professional Studies Central Washington University Ellensberg, Washington Abstract: Green building refers to do its best to maximize conservation of resources (energy, land, water, and wood)，protecting the environment and reduce pollution in its life cycle. Provide people with healthy, appropriate and efficient use of space, and nature in harmony symbiosis buildings. I described more details of green building design’notion, green building’design, as well as the significance of the concept of green building and improve the effectiveness analysis of
建筑-外文翻译
外文文献： Risk Analysis of the International Construction Project By: Paul Stanford Kupakuwana Cost Engineering Vol. 51/No. 9 September 2009 ABSTRACT This analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong. KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof
建筑外文文献及翻译
外文原文 Study on Human Resource Allocation in Multi-Project Based on the Priority and the Cost of Projects Lin Jingjing , Zhou Guohua SchoolofEconomics and management, Southwest Jiao tong University ,610031 ,China Abstract----This paper put forward the a ffecting factors of project’s priority. which is introduced into a multi-objective optimization model for human resource allocation in multi-project environment . The objectives of the model were the minimum cost loss due to the delay of the time limit of the projects and the minimum delay of the project with the highest priority .Then a Genetic Algorithm to solve the model was introduced. Finally, a numerical example was used to testify the feasibility of the model and the algorithm. Index Terms—Genetic Algorithm, Human Resource Allocation, Multi-project’s project’s priority . 1.INTRODUCTION More and more enterprises are facing the challenge of multi-project management, which has been the focus among researches on project management. In multi-project environment ,the share are competition of resources such as capital , time and human resources often occur .Therefore , it’s critical to schedule projects in order to satisfy the different resource demands and to shorten the projects’ duration time with resources constrained ,as in [1].For many enterprises ,the human resources are the most precious asset .So enterprises should reasonably and effectively allocate each resource , especially the human resource ,in order to shorten the time and cost of projects and to increase the benefits .Some literatures have
外文翻译建筑学
芬兰建筑主要因两点而闻名实用而直接的现代主义和一种同自然之间的虚构的关系。从阿尔瓦·阿尔托和他同时代——包括埃里克·布吕格曼和保利·布卢姆斯泰特 . 在内——的那些设计了年前的芬兰现代建筑作品的建筑师开始就是如此。阿尔托在年代的设计特别是完成于年的帕伊米奥疗养院布吕格曼设计的私人住宅和图尔库的公寓区以及布卢姆斯泰特的教堂设计都是芬兰现代建筑早期阶段的标志。在这之后现代主义运动的主流和分支总是成为芬兰建筑学习的对象。如此忠诚于现代主义的原因可以归结到芬兰自年独立以来的社会发展以及北欧人一贯的建筑和设计方向。北部的地理位置和文化在北欧的多种现代主义中建筑是与众多北部 欧洲的文化特性交织在一起的。起决定性的因素是气候和自然环境 同时还有从路德教而来、体现在北欧福利国家的一种共有的精神。这里值得一提的是在当地民众与自然之间的关系形成的过程中有一个关键因素——“自由信步”的理念简而言之即在一定限度内每个人都有权利进入到自然环境及其所赋予的一切中去。这一传统在那些居住环境与自然紧密相联的地方广为人知在北欧国家更是根深蒂固。波罗的海地区的自然环境十分富足、多样且尺度较小。内陆中不计其数的湖面形成了广阔的水路。芬兰被称为“千岛之国”。实际上可以说芬兰的自然环境充满了各种独特的场所。我们没有一望无际的海岸沙滩或巨大的高差但是我们拥有河、湖和群岛。多样且无所不在的水陆交替为芬兰的自然环境提供了一种韵律。这种韵律既是视觉上的也是精神上的。此外四季的变换——温暖明亮
的夏季和寒冷多雪的冬季——强化了景观的多变对自然空间的应用有着显著影响。关于芬兰建筑前文所述都与芬兰人所认知的好建筑密切相关。在这里成为好建筑的关键因素是同地段或场所的联系 及其空间体验。当代芬兰建筑中的自然和现代主义尤哈那·拉赫蒂孙凌波译: . , . , . ' , , ' , ' , , . , , . Finland' , . , , , . ' , , " ", , , , . , , , . , , . Finland . , . . , , . . . , , , , . Finland. , , . , , . ’ . , , . , . , 首先成为好建筑要尊重地段及其历史无论它是在自然环境里还是在城市之中。以阿尔瓦·阿尔托为代表的年代的芬兰建筑师一贯坚持在项目进程中对地段上的树木加以保护。这是让自然成为建筑院落一部分的方式之一。在这个时代区域划分成为城市规划的一部
建筑外文文献及翻译
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建筑学课程英文翻译
素描Sketch 画法几何Descriptive Geometry 建筑设计初步Introduction of Architecture Design 英语English 高等数学A Advanced Mathematics A 毛泽东思想概论Introduction of Mao Zedong's Thought 试唱与练声Audition and Singing 建筑设计Architecture Design 法律基础Legal Basis 邓小平理论概论Introduction of Deng Xiaoping’s theory 建筑力学Engineering Mechanics 室内设计Interior Design 广告学Advertisement 建筑结构选型Building Structure Selection 城市规划原理Principles of Urban Planning 中国古典园林Chinese Traditional Garden 专业外语Professional English 建筑节能Building Energy Saving 建筑物理Architectural physics 建筑施工技术经济管理Architectural Economics 城市空间结构组织Spatial Structure of Urban Space 建筑构造Architectural Construction 工程测量Engineering Surveying 中国古代建筑装饰Decorating Art of Traditional Chinese Architecture 室内设计发展史History of Interior Design 高层建筑设计原理Principles of High Rising Buildings 体育Physical Education 思想品德修养Ideology and Morality of Accomplishment 计算机基础Computer Basic 马克思主义哲学原理Philosophy of Marxism 阴影透视Shade Shadow Perspective 形势与政策Situation and Policy 马克思主义政治经济学原理Principles of Marxism Political Economics FORTRAN语言FORTRAN Language 色彩Gouache Painting 建筑材料Civil Engineering Materials 建筑设计原理Principles of Building Design 军训Military Training 西方经济学概论Introduction of Western Economics 中国建筑史History of Chinese Architecture 美术史History of Art 计算机辅助设计Computer Aided Design 建筑结构Building Structure 建筑构图原理Principles of Architectural Composition
外文翻译(结构设计背景)
第三部分：外文翻译 结构设计背景 Background for Structural Design 1. Practice versus Theory We hear much of the conflict between theory and practice. Actually, of course, there will be no conflict between good theory and good practice, although the two frequently seem at cross-purposes, particularly when both are bad. Bad theory develops from unjustifiably crude assumptions, while bad practice follows unjustifiably crude methods. When theory can be based upon correct premises and practice can be controlled by one who understands the theory involved, the two will agree. Nevertheless, there are certain considerations of practice that must be allowed to control design, particularly to facilitate construction. A few of the many problems that should influence the thinking of the designer and of the construction engineer will be discussed. 2. Analytical Calculations Since analysis precedes design, it will be useful to think over the process of analysis from the point of view of the practical designer. Analysis, to serve a useful purpose, must finally reach expression in terms of tons of steel, cubic yards of concrete, and board feet of structural timber. It is useless for the analyst or the designer to expect the construction engineer to worry about increasing the unit stress in a steel beam by a few hundred pounds per square inch above the allowable stress by the shifting of a partition. The field man knows that there are decisions he will have to make during erection that may influence the stress to a greater extent than the amount mentioned. For the same reason, he is not likely to be sympathetic when the blueprint carries a statement that a field connection is to be welded at a distance of 5 j ^ in. from a sheared edge.