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乡村旅游与可持续发展【外文翻译】

乡村旅游与可持续发展【外文翻译】
乡村旅游与可持续发展【外文翻译】

外文翻译

译文

标题:乡村旅游与可持续发展

资料来源: 亚诺什学院 - 布达佩斯经济科学大学

作者:塔玛拉拉茨 - 拉斯洛坡格左

引言

乡村旅游是旅游产业的一个部分,这在匈牙利显得尤为重要。在一个国家没有壮观的自然景观,没有海滨、高山、雨林、珍奇动物的情况下,迷人的村庄、温泉、河流和湖泊这些旅游资源可以利用起来。优美环境与当地人们传统的热情接待相结合,能够提供给游客愉快的体验,让游客在安静的环境中得到放松并且欣赏到文化景观。

一方面,乡村旅游业的发展使匈牙利旅游资源呈现多样化,使国家形象更加多姿多彩。另一方面,乡村旅游是刺激经济增长的一种手段,促进了欠发达地区的产业发展,并改善当地居民的生活水平。

如果乡村旅游要发挥其真正的作用,在某种程度上得到进一步的发展,那么在其自身发展的基础上,就要确保资源的长期可持续性发展。那么,什么是乡村旅游的可持续发展方式?如何对其可持续性进行监测来达到促进农村发展的目的?本文试图回答这些问题,并且通过提出匈牙利乡村旅游指标来了解被认为是这种类型的旅游的目前情况。

旅游业可持续发展

可持续发展的概念是由世界环境与发展委员会在1987年的布伦特兰报告中关提出来的,可持续发展定义为“发展,以满足当代人的需求又不损害子孙后代能满足自己的需要”。

旅游业是世界各地最重要的经济活动之一,1997年世界各地国际运送超过6.17亿人,年收益产生448亿美元(WTO,1998年),这是一个重要的经济力量。1996年产生生产总值3153.3亿美元,为255万人创造就业机会,参与生产应用程序。旅游业生产值占到世界10.7%的国内生产总值,766亿美元用于投资应用程序,每年都

在更新设施和设备,全球税收达到653.3亿美元(WTTC,1996年)。

旅游业的规模和旅游意义清楚地表明,当前旅游资源的开发是不够的,要开发“另类”的旅游发展新形式,以尽量减少其消极影响,最大限度地发挥旅游产生的积极影响。这是整个行业必须开发和管理的一种新方式,它不会破坏自然和社会文化环境,是全球范围内旅游业的责任。

布伦特兰报告中虽然没有特别提到旅游,但报告公布以来,在旅游业不断滥用地球资源的过程中,人们对报告的作用进行了分析,可持续旅游的概念开始出现。

经过认真的考虑,可持续发展旅游通常有几个定义。根据联合会的性质和国家公园的定义,可持续发展旅游是“旅游业的发展,管理和活动的所有形式,建筑与文化资源的环境,保持永久的自然,维护社会和经济的完整性”(FNNP,1993年)。一个关注旅游的世界自然基金会定义的可持续发展旅游为“经营范围内对自然资源的再生利用和未来生产力的自然开发能力;旅游区的人民和社区,习俗和生活方式,使游客感受旅游体验;公平地分享旅游业的经济利益,旅游的发展遵循当地人民的意愿”(旅游关注和世界自然基金会,1992年)的指导。

现有的定义,通常其重点或水平不同,布伦特兰报告的主要信息似乎受越来越多的世界各地的旅游业所接受。然而,可持续发展的概念是非常复杂的,它有许多分支(莫夫莫顿,1998年)。

生态的可持续性,意味着旅游业的发展不会在一个给定目标的生态系统中造成不可逆转的变化。这是世界各地最普遍接受的层面,因为有一个明显需要保护自然资源,规范旅游活动的目标。环境意识的普遍增长,已大大促进了这一趋势。社会可持续发展是指一个地区的旅游吸收能力(包括产业和游客本身)达到创造社会和谐的目标。文化旅游可持续发展的背景下,一个给定的地区能够保留或适应自己独特的文化特征,对所谓的“旅游文化”和“剩余文化”的保留发展很重要(贾法里,1987年)。旅游经济可持续发展是指在旅游业的经济收益足以提供当给地人民的前提下,使游客的旅游开销更加合理(经济可持续发展的先决条件是一个地区的吸引力和有感知的高品质的旅游供应)。

可持续发展的不同方面没有冲突,但必须视为同等重要。高水平的经济效益不得被视为一种工具来损害社会和自然资源,但后者的相对脆弱性,绝不能造成环境的破坏。旅游业的可持续发展,不仅要在经济上具有可行性,也要适应自然和文化敏感性。

正如我们所看到的,不恰当的旅游发展结果,会增加旅游目的地的压力,使旅游目的地的经济和社会文化特征产生消极的变化。为了避免或减少不利影响,决策者必须意识到,在发展过程中发挥作用的所有因素,可持续发展指标是一套公认的有用的工具。

可持续发展的指标

“指标衡量信息与决策者可能减少不知情的情况下采取决策失误的机会”(WTO,1996年)。换句话说,指标是一套有用的措施,这些因素是重要的决策者(这些因素的相对重要性取决于他们与一个给定的发展目标的相关性,以及他们对游客的重要性)。“指标是一个工具,用于管理今天和未来的投资,因为它们能减少风险和不慎损失”(WTO,1996年)。

根据不同的指导方针和建议(旅游关注和世界自然基金会(WWF)1992年;麦库尔和沃森,1994年,墨菲,1994年;豪伊,1996年;夏闻博克,1996年;世界贸易组织,1996年;莫夫莫顿,1998年),提出了以下几种指标(表1):表1 - 乡村旅游指标测量可持续发展指标

指标测量

1:压力- 访客/游客人数(每年/季)

2:社会压力- 访客/游客人数比当地居民(每年/季)

3:吸引力- 自然和文化资源的名单- 自然和文化资源的吸引力率

4:规划的过程- 存在地方/区域发展规划

5:旅游规划的过程- 存在地方/区域旅游发展规划

6:区域保护- 保护分类- 保护区的百分比相比,领土的目的地

7:当地参与- 本地旅游企业与旅游企业总数的比例

8:本地控制- 存在正式的措施(公开听证会,社区会议,地方公投),以确保对当地的发展规划和实施控制

9:就业- 旅游业创造的职位(相当于全职)- 当地雇员人数的比例,10:仅旅游对当地经济的贡献- 旅游业所产生的收入占总税收的比例11:经济的多样性- 不同的经济活动,在总税收收入的百分比

12:能源消耗- 非可再生能源可再生能源的比例(消费)

13:废物管理- 适当的污水处理系统的家庭的百分比- 废物接受管理的百分比14:教育和培训- 当地群众参与旅游专业培训和教育的百分比- 教育- 旅游

从业人员的分布在给定时间内参加在职培训旅游从业人员的百分比(和当地人民)15:本地满意-当地社区对旅游业影响的整体感知

16:游客满意度- 复杂的旅游产品的质量和价值、价格,游客的总体满意度- 百分比变化/重复访问相比,首次访问

乡村旅游的概念

乡村旅游是一种古老而又崭新的旅游方式。19世纪,人们对于农村休闲的兴趣开始增长,这是在城市化和工业化进程中人们释放压力的一种方式。农村的景象受到诗人和艺术家的赞美。然而,在我们这个时代,新的铁路公司把越来越多的游客送到乡村,不同的是:游客数量显著增加,在所有类型的农村地区,参与了旅游的发展,而不是只限于杰出的风景名胜区。

虽然它似乎被简单的定义为“旅游发生在农村”,这个定义不包括活动的复杂性和在不同国家的不同形式和不同开发的意义。根据更广泛的定义,“乡村旅游包括一系列的活动,农民和农村的人为了吸引游客到他们的地区,提供的服务和设施,为他们的企业产生的额外收入”(甘农,1988年)。如果这一更广泛的概念是可以接受的,乡村旅游覆盖不仅农场旅游或休闲观光农业(通常是乡村旅游对于大多数人来说意味着什么),而且还涉及在农村地区自然度假,住宅旅游,服务包括庆祝活动,户外休闲,手工业和农产品的生产和销售等。

“乡村旅游”一词已在不同国家有不同的含义。例如,在芬兰,它通常是指出租别墅给游客或在农村地区提供餐饮服务。在匈牙利,一个特殊术语“乡村旅游”的长期存在,表明这是一种旅游活动和提供服务的方式,在乡村存在这种旅游业(我们稍后将看到,乡村旅游通常包括价格低廉的住宿,参与性农业或其他不常见的当地活动)。在斯洛文尼亚,乡村旅游的最重要的形式是家庭农场的旅游,客人入住在农民家庭,或在家里做客,但参观农场,就餐,探索农家也很受欢迎(渥博,1995年)。在荷兰,乡村旅游意味着大多数农场服务与露营相结合的活动,如骑自行车,步行或骑马(皮特,1994年)。在希腊,乡村旅游主要提供床和早餐,传统家具的房间和传统的早餐通常是自制的产品。补充活动,目前仍然在有限的范围包内,包括提神设施活动和组织文化娱乐活动等(特纳,1993年)。

在欧洲许多国家,乡村旅游是旅游业发展的主要优先任务之一,包括匈牙利。农村假日市场增长的同时,由于农业在实践中的变化(包括欧盟共同农业政策的影响)或使城市生活魅力增加,许多农村地区的未来是不确定的。乡村旅游似乎是一

个适当的工具,复兴农村的衰退,甚至创造就业机会,增加就业的多样性。为确保其可持续发展的未来,就要扩大文化,景观的自然保护,或维护农村艺术和手工艺品。乡村旅游往往提供了基础设施(和必要的一部分资金),而这又促进了农村地区的其他经济活动的增长。乡村旅游发展有其具体的好处,为当地群众提供社会交流机会,他们往往生活在农业社会这种相对隔离的生活环境下(夏博克,1996年)。

乡村旅游与可持续发展

乡村旅游通常被认为其内在是具有可持续发展性的,它吸引的游客数量小,不需要广泛的基建发展,游客真正的兴趣通常是当地的文化和传统。农村假期的主要景点之一,是与当地居民的人际互动,使主人和来宾能够分享创意和知识,因此旅游业能够履行其作为“和平产业”的作用,作为一钟相互了解的工具。

然而,如果对乡村旅游的发展进行更深层次的分析,出现了一些内在的关于可持续性发展的疑问。被调查的最显著的问题是乡村旅游服务的经济效益,因为需求往往是季节性的,全年平均入住率较低,为游客创造或改善设施所需的投资往往是高的。在大多数农村的旅游目的地,旅游业可以作为唯一的收入来源,这是不太可能的。乡村旅游通常可以选择只有一种收入来源的地区发展,其在可持续发展中的作用可以影响其他经济部门(特别是农业)。

关于环境的可持续发展,经验表明,任何意义上的可持续发展,需要相当大的投资,才能使乡村旅游在环境脆弱的情况下对自然资产进行管理。通常最吸引游客的地区都是工业最不发达的地区,人为投资管理对于这些地区存在困难。此外,管理的农业景观不总是能满足游客的期望,现实景观有别于基于“传统的农村”为代表的山水旅游文学和宣传材料的图像。

旅游业的发展也影响着农村目的地的社会文化特征,无论是正面还是负面的影响(基恩和奎因,1990年;皮特,1994年)。作为正面的影响,以下可以说明:乡村旅游通常鼓励更好地利用现有的资源(如土地,劳动力,资本,自然和文化景点),带来了社会经济变化,有利于遗产和农村环境的保护,为当地人民提供了更多的社会的接触和提高自我的机会,了解了其他文化。作为负面影响,旅游在一定程度上会造成农村的变化,损害农村景观,破坏农村的自然环境和文化价值,重新排列社会分层(在某些情况下,这也可以解释作为一个积极的变化),对当地社区造成额外的压力,改变他们的生活节奏,威胁到他们的隐私,为了适应游客的意愿,创造业绩,对当地的习俗和传统不真实的演绎等。

外文文献原文

Rural tourism and sustainable development

Material Source:: Kodolányi János College - Budapest University of Economic Sciences

Author: Tamara Rátz - László Puczkó

INTRODUCTION

Rural tourism is a segment of the total tourist industry which is particularly important in Hungary, in a country with no spectacular natural attractions, without seaside, high mountains, rainforest or herds of exotic animals. However, its attractive cultural landscapes with small villages, thermal springs, rivers and lakes, combined with the traditional hospitality, are able to offer pleasant experiences to the kind of tourist who is looking for relaxation and recreation in a calm setting.

On one hand, rural tourism development can play an important role in the diversification of the Hungarian tourist supply and in the creation of a more complex and colourful country image. On the other hand, rural tourism is not only the end, but the means to stimulate economic growth, to increase the viability of underdeveloped regions, and to improve the living standards of local populations.

If rural tourism is to fulfil all these roles, it has to be developed in a way that ensures the long-term sustainability of the resources and that of the development progress itself. But what is a sustainable way of development in rural tourism ? How can sustainability be monitored and promoted in rural destinations ? This paper attempts to answer these questions by presenting the current situation of Hungarian rural tourism through indicators that are considered to be relevant for this type of tourism.

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

The concept of sustainable development was introduced by the World Commission on Environment and Development in the Brundtland Report in 1987, defining sustainable development as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs".

Tourism is one of the foremost economic activities around the world, having transported more than 617 million people internationally and generated 448 billion USD in receipts in 1997 (WTO, 1998). It is a major economic force, having generated in 1996 an estimated 3,153.3 billion USD in gross output, creating employment for app. 255 million people, producing app. 10.7 per cent of world gross domestic product, investing app. 766 billion USD in new facilities and equipment annually, and contributing more than app. 653.3 billion USD to global tax revenue (WTTC, 1996).

The volume and significance of tourism clearly shows that it is not enough to develop new forms of "alternative" tourism in order to minimise the negative and maximise the positive impacts of tourism development. The whole sector must be developed and managed in a way that it does not damage the natural and socio-cultural environment and this is the responsibility of the world-wide tourism industry.

Though the Brundtland report made no special reference to tourism, since its publication, the role of tourism in the process of continuously misusing the Earth's resources has been analysed and the concept of sustainable tourism appeared.

Sustainable tourism has several - often seriously debated - definitions. According to the definition of the Federation of Nature and National Parks, sustainable tourism is "all forms of tourism development, management and activity that maintain the environmental, social and economic integrity and well-being of natural, built and cultural resources in perpetuity" (FNNP, 1993). A publication by the Tourism Concern and the World Wide Fund for Nature defines sustainable tourism as tourism which "operates within natural capacities for the regeneration and future productivity of natural resources; recognises the contribution that people and communities, customs and lifestyles, make to the tourism experience; accepts that these people must have an equitable share in the economic benefits of tourism; and is guided by the wishes of local people and communities in the host areas" (Tourism Concern & WWF, 1992).

Though the existing definitions usually differ in their focus or level of elaborateness, the main message of the Brundtland Report seems to be more and more accepted by the tourism industry all over the world. However, the notion of sustainability is a very complex one and it has many ramifications (Mowforth & Munt, 1998).

Ecological sustainability, which means that tourism development does not cause irreversible changes in a given destination's ecosystem, is the most commonly accepted dimension, since there is an obvious need all over the world to protect natural resources from the negative impacts of tourism activities. The general growth of environment-awareness has significantly contributed to this trend. Social sustainability refers to the ability of a community to absorb tourism (both the industry and the tourists themselves) without the creation of social disharmony. Cultural sustainability in the context of tourism assumes that a given community is able to retain or adapt their own distinctive cultural traits against the pressure of both the so-called "tourist culture" and the "residual culture" of the visitors (Jafari, 1987). Economic sustainability refers to a level of economic gain from tourism that is sufficient to provide an appropriate income for the local community (compared to the inconvenience caused by the activities of the tourism sector) and to cover all the costs of any special measure taken to satisfy the tourists (thus a precondition of economic sustainability is the attractiveness of an area and the perceived high quality of its tourist supply: without being in a competitive position in the world market, no destination can be economically sustainable).

The different aspects of sustainability do not compete, but must be seen as equally important. High level of economic profitability must not be considered as a tool to cover over the damage done to social or natural resources, but the relative fragile nature of these latter must not create a planning environment where economic considerations are not being taken (properly). Sustainable tourism development has to be economically viable and naturally and culturally sensitive at the same time.

As we could see, inappropriate tourism development results in increasing stress on destinations and consequently in negative changes in the destinations' physical, economic and socio-cultural characteristics. In order to avoid or minimise unfavourable impacts, decision-makers must be aware of all the factors that play a role in the development process. In the measurement of the progress that an individual destination is making towards sustainable tourism development, sustainability indicators are commonly accepted as one set of useful tools.

INDICATORS OF SUSTAINABILITY

"Indicators measure information with which decision-makers may reduce the chances of unknowingly taking poor decisions" (WTO, 1996). In other words, indicators are a set of useful measures of those factors that are important to the decision-makers (the relative significance of these factors depend on their relevance to the development objectives of a given destination, and on their importance to tourists)."Indicators are both a tool for management today and an investment in the future, since they reduce the risk of inadvertent damage to the resource base on which the [tourist] industry depends" (WTO, 1996).

Based on different guidelines and recommendations (Tourism Concern & WWF, 1992; McCool & Watson, 1994; Murphy, 1994; Howie, 1996; Swarbrooke, 1996; WTO, 1996; Mowforth & Munt, 1998), the indicators suggested for the purpose of this study are the following (Table 1):

Table 1 - Indicators of Sustainability in Rural Tourism Indicator Measure

1. Stress - Number of visitors/tourists (per annum/season)

2. Social stress - Ratio of visitor/tourist numbers to local population (per annum/season)

3. Attractiveness - List of natural and cultural resources - Rate of attractiveness of natural and cultural resources

4. Planning process - Existence of local/regional plan for development

5. Tourism planning process - Existence of local/regional plan for tourism development

6. Area protection - Category of protection - Percentage of protected area compared to the whole territory of the destination

7. Local involvement - Ratio of the number of locally owned tourist businesses to the total number of tourist businesses

8. Local control - Existence of formal measures (public hearing, community meeting, local referendum) to ensure local control over development planning and implementation

9. Employment - Number of jobs created in tourism (full-time equivalent) - Ratio of local employee number to the number of guest workers

10. Tourism contribution to the local economy - Proportion of total tax income

generated by tourism only

11. Economic diversity - Share of different economic activities in the total tax income

12. Energy consumption - Ratio of renewable energy sources to non-renewable energy sources (consumption)

13. Waste management - Percentage of households with proper sewage system - Percentage of waste receiving treatment

14. Education and training - Percentage of local people involved in tourism with professional training and education - Distribution of tourism employees by education - Percentage of tourism employees (and local people) participating in on-the-job training in

a given time period

15. Local satisfaction - Overall perception of tourism's impacts in local community

16. Tourist satisfaction - Overall satisfaction of tourists concerning the quality and the value/price ratio of the complex tourist product - Percentage/change of repeat visits compared to first-time visits

THE CONCEPT OF RURAL TOURISM

Rural tourism is an old and a new phenomenon at the same time. Interest in countryside recreation started to grew already in the 19. century as a reaction to the stress of the increasing urbanisation and industrialisation. The rural scene was admired by poets and artists. The new railway companies transported more and more tourists to the countryside. However, the rural tourism of our era is different: the number of tourists involved has increased significantly and tourism has developed in all types of countryside instead of being limited to areas of exceptional scenic beauty.

Though it seems to be simple to define rural tourism as "tourism that takes place in the countryside", this definition does not include the complexity of the activity and the different forms and meanings developed in different countries. According to a broader definition, "rural tourism includes a range of activities, services and amenities provided by farmers and rural people to attract tourists to their area in order to generate extra income for their businesses" (Gannon, 1988, in te Kloeze, 1994). If this broader concept is accepted, rural tourism covers not only farm tourism or agritourism (which is generally what rural tourism means for most people), but also special interest nature holidays,

touring in rural areas and residential tourism, and the services include - besides accommodation - events, festivities, outdoor recreation, production and sale of handicrafts and agricultural products, etc.

The term "rural tourism" has different meanings in different countries. In Finland, for example, it usually means renting out cottages to visitors or providing catering services in the countryside. In Hungary, a special term of "village tourism" exists, indicating that only activities and services provided in villages are included in this kind of tourism (as we will see later, village tourism typically covers low-priced accommodation, involvement in agricultural or other local activities is not common). In Slovenia, the most important form of rural tourism is tourism on family farms, where guests stay either with the farmer family or in a guest house, but visiting farms to have a meal and explore the farmyard is also popular (Verbole, 1995). In the Netherlands, the rural tourist product means especially camping on the farm, with most farm services being linked to route-bound activities as cycling, walking or horse-riding (Peters et al, 1994). In Greece, the main provision of rural tourism product is bed and breakfast with accommodation in traditionally furnished rooms and with traditional breakfasts often based on home-made products. Complementary activities - currently still on a limited scale - include restaurants and refreshment facilities or the organisation of cultural and recreational activities (Turner, 1993).

Rural tourism is one of the main priorities of tourism development in many European countries, including Hungary. The market for rural holidays is growing at the same time as the future of many rural regions is uncertain, due to changes in agricultural practice (including the effects of the Common Agricultural Policy in the EU) or the increasing attractiveness of urban living standards. Rural tourism seems to be an appropriate tool to revitalise the declining rural areas and to ensure their sustainable future by job retention or even job creation, increased job diversity, service retention, farm support, broadened cultural provision, landscape and nature conservation or the maintenance of rural arts and crafts as tourist attractions. Rural tourism often provides an incentive (and part of the necessary funding) for infrastructural development, which then contributes to the growth of other economic activities in rural areas. A specific benefit of rural tourism development can be the increasing number of opportunities for social interaction for local people who

often live relatively isolated lives in agricultural communities (Swarbrooke, 1996). RURAL TOURISM AND SUSTAINABILITY

Rural tourism is often considered to be intrinsically sustainable, for it attracts small number of visitors, there is no need for extensive infrastructural development, tourists are usually genuinely interested in the local culture and traditions. One of the main attraction of rural holidays is the personal interaction with local residents, so hosts and guests are able to share ideas and knowledge, and consequently tourism can fulfil its role as the "industry of peace", as a tool of mutual understanding.

Nevertheless, if rural tourism development is analysed on a deeper level, certain doubts arise concerning intrinsic sustainability. The most significant issue to be investigated is the economic profitability of rural tourist services, since the demand is often seasonal, the occupancy rates are low and the investment required for creating or improving facilities for tourists is often high. In most rural tourist destinations it is quite unlikely that tourism can be viable as a sole source of income. Rural tourism can usually be only one of the income-generating alternatives in a region, so its role in sustainable development is highly influenced by the performances of other economic sectors (especially agriculture).

Concerning environmental sustainability, experiences suggest that considerable investment needs to be undertaken in the environmental management of vulnerable natural assets in order to make rural tourism in any sense sustainable. Tourists are usually most attracted by the industrially least developed regions, which are particularly sensitive to human interference. In addition, managed agricultural landscapes do not always meet the expectations of tourists based on the images of "traditional rural" landscapes represented in the tourist literature and in promotional materials.

Tourism development also influences the socio-cultural characteristics of rural destinations, both in positive and negative way (Keane & Quinn, 1990; Peters et al, 1994). As positive impacts, the following can be mentioned: rural tourism usually encourages better use of the available resources (like land, labour, capital, natural and cultural attractions), brings about socio-economic change, contributes to heritage protection and the conservation of the rural environment, provides more social contact for local people

and increases their chance to learn about other cultures. As negative impacts, tourism in rural areas changes or damages the rural landscape and the natural and cultural values of a given region, rearranges social stratification (this can also be interpreted as a positive change in certain cases), puts additional pressure on the local community, changes their rhythm of life, threatens their privacy or results in the inauthentic presentation of local customs and traditions, adapted to the tourists wishes.

生态旅游英文文献

Gee Journal 31.4457-465457?1993 (Dec) by Kluwer Academic Publishers Ecotoufism in the Small Island Caribbean Weave~ David B., Prof. Dl:, UniversiO, of Regina, Luther College, Regina, Saskatchewan $4S OA2, Canada ABSTRACT: Ecotourism-related strategies can serve to enhance the tourism industries of small Caribbean islands, which are presently dominated by a 3S (sea, sand, sun) product. In the first place, the principles of Alternative Tourism can be applied to 3S tourism in order to minimize negative environmental impacts. Secondly, diversionary ecotourism opportunities can be promoted to diversify the tourism product, thus providing a nature-oriented alternative to resort-based tourists. Thirdly, regional ecotourism, catering to ecotourists, can be fostered in mountainous interiors, peripheral islands, undeveloped coastlines, rural agricultural areas and in offshore reefs. A fourth strategy, exemplified by Dominica, entails a comprehensive ecotourism approach for destinations in which 3S tourism is undesired or unsuited. Introdactien The concept of ecotourism has attracted a considerable amount of interest among both academics and non-academics since the term was first introduced in the mid-1980s (see for example Boo t990; Goriup 1991; Lindberg 1991; Nelson, Butler and Wall 1993; Whelan 1991; Ziffer 1989). In a frequently cited definition, Ceballos-Lascurain (1988) characterizes ecotourism as Tourism that involves travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific object of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural aspects (both past and present) found in these areas. While this definition is useful in stressing the environmental orientation of ecotourism, it is clear that the term has also come to be associated with a range o f characteristics which collectively define an "alternative tourism" (AT) paradigm (Dernoi 1981; Krippendorf 1987; Singh, Theuns and Go 1989). This paradigm has emerged as an alternative to "conventional mass tourism" (CMT), which has been criticized as an often inappropriate form of tourism, especially for smaller destinations. CMT characteristics, outlined and contrasted in Tab 1 with the AT model, tend to appear during the middle and later stages of a destination's cycle of evolution (Butler 1980; Christaller 1963; Stansfield 1978). With respect to accommodations, attractions, market and economic impact, the argument can be made that ecotourism and AT are merely other names for the early "exploration" stage of the resort cycle, when relatively unspoiled areas are opened up to further tourist incursions by a few pioneer travellers. However, as pointed out by Weaver (1991), what distinguishes this "circumstantial" AT from "deliberate" AT is the lack of regulations and policies which attempt to ensure that the activity is maintained at environmentally, economically and socially sustainable levels. "Deliberate" ecotourism, the subject of this paper, is therefore very" much associated with intentions of identifying and working within the carrying capacities of a particular area, and o f discouraging the emergence of a CM T product where it is deeme d to be undesirable or inappropriate. The recent proliferation of ecotourism case studies, based largely in the underdeveloped world, is not surprising in light of deliberate ecotourism's status as the fastest growing form o f tourism (Whelan 1991). For example, Dearden (1989) and Zurick (1992) examined the p h e n o m e n o n of mountain trekking in Nepal and northern Thailand respectively, while Boo (1990), and Fennell and

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