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2010.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.

2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.

3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root)--- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.

4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes--- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.

5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".

6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.

7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.

There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.

8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.

9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.

10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.

Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)

Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)

11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.

12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.

13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).

14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.

15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.

16.Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.

17.Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.

18.Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.

19. Compounding（Compositon）--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.

20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.

21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.

22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.

23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.

I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.

II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.

III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

IV.Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.

24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.

*Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and Synchronic

Diachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .

Synchronically,we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.

*Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenation

Radiation: Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.

Concatenation: is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.

25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的，完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.

26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。

E.g. bear n. a large heavy animal;

bear v. to put up with

27. Homographs--are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. E.g.

sow /s3u/ v. to scatter seeds

sow /sau/ n. female adult pig

28. Homophones--are words identical only insound but different in spelling and meaning. E.g.

dear /di3/ n. a loved person

deer /di3/ n. a kind of animal

29.Synonyms--can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. E.g.

maid / girl They are the same meaning of "a young female".

30.Absolute(Complete, Perfect)Synonyms--are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. For instance, composition / compounding They have the perfect same meaning in Lexicology.

31.Relative (near,partial) synonyms--are similar or nearly the same in denotation ,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.

Take stagger/reel/totter for example. Stagger implies unsteady movement characterized by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course. E.g. stagger under a heavy load; Reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling. E.g. The drunken man reeled down the hall; Totter indicates the uncertain, faltering steps of a feeble old person or of an infant learning to walk.

32. Sources of Synonyms

I. Borrowing : Native (ask)--French (question)--Latin (interrogate)

II. Dialects and regional English: railway (BrE)--railroad (AmE)

III. Figurative『a. 比喻的，象征的』and euphemistic 『a.委婉的』use of words: occupation--walk of life (fig.)

lie--distort the fact (euph.)

IV. Coincidence with idiomatic expressions:

win--gain the upper hand

hesitate--be in two minds

33. Discrimination of Synonyms

I. Difference in denotation : differ in the range and intensity of meaning.

E.g. extend--increase--expand (range)

want--wish--desire (intensity)

II. Difference in connotation『n.涵义，含蓄』: differ in the stylistic and emotive colouring.

E.g. ask (neutral); beg (colloquial); request (formal)

III. Difference in application: in usage.

E.g. empty box ; vacant seat

34. Antonymy--is concerned with semantic opposition.

35. Antonyms--are words which are opposite in meaning.

36. Types of Antonyms

I.Contradictory terms: mutually opposed; true oppositeness of meaning; no possibility between them; E.g. alive--dead; present--absent

II. Contrary terms: gradable

E.g. rich--(well-to-do)--poor;

hot--(warm,cool)--cold

III. Relative terms: relational oppositeness

E.g. parent--child; husband--wife; sell--buy

IV. Semantic incompatibles: contrastingness.

E.g. north,south,east,west;

spring,summer,autumn,winter.

37.Hyponymy--deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is , the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. These specific words are known as hyponyms. For instance, tulip and rose are hyponyms of flower. The general word flower is the superordinate term and the specific ones tulip and rose are the subordinate terms.

38. Extension of meaning (generalization)--is a term referring to the widening of meaning. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized. "Picture", for example, originally denoted mere "painting", but now has come to include "drawings" and even "photographs".

39. Narrowing of meaning(specialization)--is a term referring to the shrinking of meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.

E.g. When garage was first borrowed from French, it meant simply "any safe place" but now "a place for storing cars".

40. Elevation or amelioration『n.改善，改良』--refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.

E.g. Marshal and constable meant a "keeper of horses", but now have risen to a "high-ranking army officer" and "policeman" respectively.

41. Degradation or pejoration of meaning--It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory

sense.

E.g. A wench was a "country girl" and now means "prostitute".

42. Metaphor『n.隐喻』--is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another.

E.g. the teeth of a comb; blood bank; He has a heart of stone; The curtain of night has fallen.

43. Metonymy『n.借代』--is the device in which we name something by one of its attributes, as in crown for king, the White House for the President. The kettle is boiling. (kettle for water in the kettle)

44. Synecdoche『n.提喻法』--means using a part for a whole, an individual for a class,

a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these.

For example, bread for food, the army for a soldier.

He is a poor creature. --creature for man

45. Analogy『n.类似，相似』--is a process whereby words are created in imitation of other words.

For example, telethon an talkathon are created on the model of marathon.

46.Idiom--Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. For example, fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with (tolerate). In a broad sense, idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions ,proverbs,etc.

47. Characteristics of Idioms:

I. Long use

II. Unitary meaning; semantic unity.

III. Syntactic frozenness; structural stability.

48. Figurative idioms--are idioms that include metaphor. Strictly speaking, they are true idioms. E.g. a dog in the manger.

49. Sources of Figurative idioms:

I. Coloquialisms: big wheel (an influential or important person)

II. Literary expressions: to kill the fatted calf

III. Slang: in the soup(in serious trouble)

IV. Foreign idioms: sour grapes.

50. Motivation--accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.

51.Onomatopoeic Motivation--These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, ping-pang, crow by cocks, etc.

52. Morphological Motivation--Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. For instance, airmail means to "mail by air", miniskirt is "a small skirt".

53.Semantic Motivation--refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.

E.g. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate the opening part of the river with the mouth of a human being or an animal.

54. Etymological Motivation--The history of the word explains the meaning of the word

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English Lexicology(英语词汇学) Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. The Nature and Scope of English lexicology： English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to： English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology： According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English. A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study. Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself” Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary Classification of English Words： By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional words By origin:native words&borrowed words The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征): 1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性） 3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性） 没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang（俚语） (4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email) Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but) Native Words and Borrowed Words Native words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in use

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自考00832英语词汇学-自考本科词汇学重点笔记

自考本科词汇学重点笔记 Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. The Nature and Scope of English lexicology： English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to： English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),styl istics（文体论） and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology： According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English. A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study. Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arb itrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself” Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary Vocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary Classification of English Words： By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional words By origin:native words&borrowed words The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征): 1)All-National character（全民通用性most important） 2)Stability（相对稳定性） 3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性） 没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话） (3)slang（俚语） (4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email) Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words 虚词(on, of, and, be, but) Native Words and Borrowed Words Native words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in use Borrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV) 4 Types of loan words: 1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON)) 2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)

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2、词汇积累学习

加强短文背诵，增强“词不离句”意识。背诵是非常原始的英语学习方法，但也是非常积极、有效的学习方法。优选一些名家名篇，做为背诵的素材;或从课文中精选一些精悍之作，作为研习的精典，不但能够迅速提高语感，而且容易激发兴趣，形成活生生的词库，为单词的准确使用打下良好的基础。 3、英语主观题拿分技巧 首先是单词拼写，这是所有题目中考生得分最低的一个部分，通常平均分不超过3分，所以大家不要太在意，20个单词，对4个，能有2分就很不错了，如果想要提高这部分，大家还要有准备的背单词，因为这里面的单词，并不全是课本课后单词表的单词，其中很多都是以前在中学学过的，所以要准备这一部分，需要的是买一本自考英语的词汇大纲，按里面的词汇背记才有意义。 如果大家对英语词汇学课程学习有难度，那么可以通过在线视频学习的，以上三点就是学赛小编对英语词汇学必背知识点学习方法，希望大家能更好的学习。 点击进入>>>