语言学重点总结

Chapter 6

Cognition is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.

There exist three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach and the conceptual approach.

The Formal approach basically addresses the structural patterns exhibited by the overt aspect of linguistic forms, largely abstracted away from or regarded as autonomous from any associated meaning.

The Psychological approach looks at language from the perspective of relatively general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, and attention to reasoning.

The conceptual approach is concerned with the patterns in which and the processes by which conceptual content is organized in language.

Structure will be used to refer both to patterns and to process, the conceptual approach can more simply be said to address how language structures conceptual content.

Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activities associated with the use of language.

Six aspects of research within psycholinguistics: ①Acquisition ②Comprehension ③Production ④Disorders ⑤Language and thought ⑥Neurocognition

Language acquisition: ①Holophrastic stage ②Two-word stage ③Stage of three-word utterances ④Fluent grammatical conversation stage

Connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like love.

Language comprehension: ①word recognition ②comprehension of sentences ③comprehension of text

Cohort model: the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input.

Interactive model holds that higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels.

The race model doe s not agree “top-down” effects, it has two routes that race each other----a pre-lexical route, which computes phonological information from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route, in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed.

Serial models propose that the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows the constraints of a language’s grammar with remarkable speed. Parallel models emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general.

In resonance model, information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it. Language production: ①Access to words ②Generation of sentences ③Written

language production

Functional planning process assigns grammatical functions such as subject, verb or direct object.

Positional encoding uses the retrieved lexicon-grammar units and the functions they have been assigned to generate syntactic structures that capture the dependencies among constituents and their order.

Cognitive linguistics is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world.

Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc.

Construal operations are the underlying psychological processed and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.

①Attention/Salience ②Judgment/Comparison ③Perspective/Situatedness Trajector refers to a dynamic figure and landmark to the ground of a moving figure. Deixis involves linguistic forms that point at something from the speech situation. Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.

There are three levels in categories: ①the basic level ②the superordinate level ③the subordinate level

The categories at the basic level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the best.

Superordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level.

Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. ①A center-periphery schema: It involves a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degrees of distance from the core② A containment schema: It is an image schema that involves a physical pr metaphorical boundary, enclosed area or volume, or excluded area or volume. ③A cycle schema: It involves repetitious events and event series.

④A force schema: It involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. ⑤A link schema: It consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bound between them. ⑥A part-whole schema: It involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts. ⑦A path schema: It involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, and consists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points. ⑧A scale

schema: It involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount.

⑨A verticality schema: It involves “up” and “down” relations.

Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other.

The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.

Three categories of conceptual metaphors: ontological metaphors, structural metaphors, and orientational metaphors.

Ontological metaphor means that human experiences with physical objecets provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances.

Structural metaphor plays the important role because it allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.

Orientational metaphor gives a concept a spatial orientation. They are characterized not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another, but by a co-occurrence in our experience.

Metonymy is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental process to the target within the same domain.

We have three ICMs in ontological realms: ①Sign ICMs ②Reference ICMs ③Concept ICMs

Blending theory or integration theory is a cognitive operation whereby elements of two or more “mental spaces” are integrated via projection into a new, blended space which has its unique structure.

Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society

Context of situation:

A.The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities

ⅰ. The verbal action of the participants.

ⅱ. The non-verbal action of the participants.

B.The relevant objects.

C.The effects of the verbal action.

Ethnography of communication: an authoritative research framework of our time in a linguistic study of social and cultural factors. The essential elements suggested by this framework include①speech community ②situation, event and act ③mnemonic speaking components.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, two important points could be captured in this theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other, similarity between languages is relative.

Linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e.

language determines thought.

Linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.

During cross-cultural communication,there are five types of sub-culture we should be fully aware of:①ecological culture ②linguistic culture ③religious culture ④material culture ⑤social culture

Linguistic universality is the similarities possessed by most languages, instead of their assumed differences.

There are at least three objectives for us to teach culture in our language class:

1.To get the students familiar with cultural differences

2.To get the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of

the target culture will

3.To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding

culture through various classroom practices

S ocial factors of influencing our language behavior in a social context: a) class b) gender c) age d) ethnic identity e) education background f) occupation g)religious belief

Women register’s features:

1)Women use more “fancy” color words such as “mauve” and “beige”

2)Women use less powerful curse words

3)Women use more intensifiers such as “terrible” and “awful”

4)Women use more tag questions

5)Women use more statement questions like “Dinner will be ready at seven

o’clock?” (with a rising intonation at the end)

6)Women’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men’s. Linguistic sexism: many differences between men and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.

Sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to potential sociocultural factors in a social context.

Sociolinguistics of society: one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.

Communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules, conventions, etc. governing the skilled use of language in a society. Sociolinguistics has made some important contributions:

1.Sociolinguistics has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of

language teaching

2.It has also contributed to innovations in materials and activities for the

classroom

3.It has contributed to a fresh look at the nature of language development and use

4.It has contributed to a more fruitful research in this field

Tripartite model for successful communication:

1.try to look at things from other persons’ point of view

2.try to sense their feeling to a given issue

3.try to understanding their way of knowing the world

Gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is “gende r difference”

Variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics, which studies the relationship between spea kers’ social starts and phonological variations.

Chapter 8 Language in Use

Performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. Constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.

Locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.

Illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.

Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.

Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, unders tandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.

Cooperative principle:

Quantity

1.Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the

exchange).

2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

Quality

Try to make your contribution one that is true.

1.Do not say what you believe to be false;

2.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

Relevance

Be relevant.

Manner

Be perspicuous.

1.Avoid obscurity of expression

2.Avoid ambiguity

3.be brief (avoid prolixity)

4.Be orderly.

Entailment: relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other: e.g. “Mary is running” entails, among other things, “Mary is not standing still”. Ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inferential.

Communicative principle of relevance: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.

Relevance: a property that any utterance, or a proposition that it communicates, must, in the nature of communication, necessarily have.

Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, i.e. Make your contribution sufficient (of quantity1); Say as much as you can (given R).

R-principle: one of the two principles in H orn’s scale, i.e. Make your contribution necessary (Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q). Division of pragmatic labor: the use of a marked relatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarked (simpler, less “effortfu l”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message (one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed). Constraints on Horn scales: the hearer-based Q-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to.

Chapter 12

Schools of modern linguistics: The Prague School, The London School, American Structuralism, Transformational-Generative Grammar.

Three points of Prague School:

1.It was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can

draw on complete and controllable material for investigation but no rigid theoretical barrier is erected to separate diachronic study.

2.There was an emphasis on the systemic character of language.

https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9510543994.html,nguage was looked on as functional in another sense, that is, as a tool

performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it. Trubetzkoy’s contributions to phonological theory:

1.He showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate

definition for the phoneme.

2.By making distinctions between phonetics and phonology, and between stylistic

phonology, he defined the sphere of phonological studies.

3.By studying the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes, he

revealed the interdependent relations between phonemes.

4.He put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies, such as the

method of extracting phonemes and the method of studying phonological combinations.

Functional Sentence Perspective is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain.

热力学复习知识点汇总

概 念 部 分 汇 总 复 习 第一章 热力学的基本规律 1、热力学与统计物理学所研究的对象：由大量微观粒子组成的宏观物质系统 其中所要研究的系统可分为三类 孤立系：与其他物体既没有物质交换也没有能量交换的系统； 闭系：与外界有能量交换但没有物质交换的系统； 开系：与外界既有能量交换又有物质交换的系统。 2、热力学系统平衡状态的四种参量：几何参量、力学参量、化学参量和电磁参量。 3、一个物理性质均匀的热力学系统称为一个相；根据相的数量，可以分为单相系和复相系。 4、热平衡定律(热力学第零定律）：如果两个物体各自与第三个物体达到热平衡，它们彼此也处在热平衡. 5、符合玻意耳定律、阿氏定律和理想气体温标的气体称为理想气体。 6、范德瓦尔斯方程是考虑了气体分子之间的相互作用力（排斥力和吸引力）,对理想气体状态方程作了修正之后的实际气体的物态方程。 7、准静态过程：过程由无限靠近的平衡态组成，过程进行的每一步，系统都处于平衡态。 8、准静态过程外界对气体所作的功：，外界对气体所作的功是个过程量。 9、绝热过程：系统状态的变化完全是机械作用或电磁作用的结果而没有受到其他影响。绝热过程中内能U 是一个态函数： A B U U W -= 10、热力学第一定律（即能量守恒定律）表述：任何形式的能量，既不能消灭也不能创造，只能从一种形 式转换成另一种形式，在转换过程中能量的总量保持恒定；热力学表达式：Q W U U A B +=-；微分 形式：W Q U d d d += 11、态函数焓H ：pV U H +=，等压过程：V p U H ?+?=?，与热力学第一定律的公式一比较 即得：等压过程系统从外界吸收的热量等于态函数焓的增加量。 12、焦耳定律：气体的内能只是温度的函数，与体积无关，即)(T U U =。 13．定压热容比：p p T H C ??? ????=；定容热容比：V V T U C ??? ????= 公式：nR C C V p =- 14、绝热过程的状态方程： const =γpV ；const =γ TV ； const 1 =-γ γT p 。 15、卡诺循环过程由两个等温过程和两个绝热过程组成。正循环为卡诺热机，效率2 11T T - =η，逆循环 为卡诺制冷机，效率为2 11T T T -= η （只能用于卡诺热机）。 16、热力学第二定律：克劳修斯表述：不可能把热量从低温物体传到高温物体 而不引起其他变化（表明热传导过程是不可逆的）； 开尔文（汤姆孙）表述：不可能从单一热源吸收热量使之完全变成有用的功而不引起其他变化（表明功变热的过程是不可逆的）； 另一种开氏表述：第二类永动机不可能造成的。 17、无摩擦的准静态过程是可逆过程。 18、卡诺定理：所有工作于两个一定温度T 1与T 2之间的热机，以可逆机的效率为最高。并且所有的可逆机 的效率η都相等21 1T T - =η ，与工作物质无关，只与热源温度有关。 19、热机的效率：1 21Q Q -=η，Q 1为热机从高温热源吸收的热量，Q 2 为热机在低温热源放出的热量。 20、克劳修斯等式与不等式：02 211≤+T Q T Q 。 21、可逆热力学过程0=?T dQ ，不可逆热力学过程0

语言学重点概念总结

Design features（定义特征）: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. Synchronic（共时的）: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic（历时的）: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Prescriptive（规定式）: to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language. Descriptive（描写式）: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. Competence（语言能力）: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。Performance（语言运用）:

the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue（语言）: the language system shared by a “speech community”. 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole（言语）: the concrete utterances of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Phonology（音系学）： the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标）: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include

简明英语语言学知识点汇总

新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;

②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; Language is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;

英语语言学词汇汇总

现代语言学术语总结 A abbreviation缩写法 acculturation语言文化移入 acoustic phonetics声学语言学 acronym词首字母缩略词 address term称谓语 addresser发话人 addressee受话人 adjacency毗邻 Adjacency Condition毗邻条件 Adjacency Parameter毗邻参数 Affix词缀 Affixation加词缀法 Affricate塞擦音 Afroasiatic非亚语系 agreement rule一致关系规则 allophone音位变体 alveolar齿龈音 alveolus齿龈 angular gyrus角形脑回 antonymy反义现象 antonym反以词 apocope词尾音脱落 aphasia失语症 aphasic失语症患者 applied linguistics应用语言学arbitrariness任意性 argument论元 articulatory phonetics发音语音学articulatory variable发音变项 aspiration送气 assimilation同化 approximation近似化 auditory phonetics听觉语音学Austronesian…语系 B Babbling咿呀学语 back-formation逆向构词法 back vowel后元音 Behaviorism行为主义 Behaviorist learning theory行为主义学习理论Behaviorist Psychology行为主义心理学

工程热力学知识点总结

工程热力学大总结 '

… 第一章基本概念 1.基本概念 热力系统：用界面将所要研究的对象与周围环境分隔开来，这种人为分隔的研究对象，称为热力系统，简称系统。 边界：分隔系统与外界的分界面，称为边界。 外界：边界以外与系统相互作用的物体，称为外界或环境。 闭口系统：没有物质穿过边界的系统称为闭口系统，也称控制质量。 ) 开口系统：有物质流穿过边界的系统称为开口系统，又称控制体积，简称控制体，其界面称为控制界面。 绝热系统：系统与外界之间没有热量传递，称为绝热系统。 孤立系统：系统与外界之间不发生任何能量传递和物质交换，称为孤立系统。 单相系：系统中工质的物理、化学性质都均匀一致的系统称为单相系。 复相系：由两个相以上组成的系统称为复相系，如固、液、气组成的三相系统。 单元系：由一种化学成分组成的系统称为单元系。 多元系：由两种以上不同化学成分组成的系统称为多元系。 } 均匀系：成分和相在整个系统空间呈均匀分布的为均匀系。 非均匀系：成分和相在整个系统空间呈非均匀分布，称非均匀系。 热力状态：系统中某瞬间表现的工质热力性质的总状况，称为工质的热力状态，简称为状态。 平衡状态：系统在不受外界影响的条件下，如果宏观热力性质不随时间而变化，系统内外同时建立了热的和力的平衡，这时系统的状态称为热力平衡状态，简称为平衡状态。 状态参数：描述工质状态特性的各种物理量称为工质的状态参数。如温度（T）、压力（P）、比容（υ）或密度（ρ）、内能（u）、焓（h）、熵（s）、自由能（f）、自由焓（g）等。 基本状态参数：在工质的状态参数中，其中温度、压力、比容或密度可以直接或间接地用仪表测量出来，称为基本状态参数。

语言学概论重点总结

语言学概论重点总结 一、名词解释（4*6=24） 1、孤立语：孤立语又称词根语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示，汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。例如，“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语，“他”是宾语，主要取决于词序。又如，“买菜”是述宾结构，“买的菜”是偏正结构，主要取决于虚词。汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化，一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语，词性都不曾发生变化。除了汉语外，属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。 2、屈折语：屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。内部屈折指通过词的语音交替（改变部分语音）来构成不同的语法形式，表示不同的语法意义；如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义，以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。 外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。例如英语的book（书，单数）在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书，复数)。 屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义，例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态，如works. 同样的语法意义，在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示，如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔)，-e（noπe田地）。 屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧，如果去掉构型词缀，词根往往就不能成词，如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。 印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等，一般都属于屈折语，其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。 3、音位：是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位，是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。 音位本身并不含有任何意义。音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。如单个的/k/和/ae/或/t/是没有什么意义的，但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了“猫”的意义。因此，音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用，而没有表达意义的作用。 音位分析的目的是要把语言里数目繁多的语言归纳为数目有限的一套音位系统，分析音位的三基本原则是：对立、互补、语音相似。 音位可以分为音质音位和非音质音位两大类。一般把音素的音质角度分析归并出来的音位叫音质音位，因为它占有一个时段，所以又叫音段音位。除了音质以外，音高、音强、音长这些非音质形式也能区别词的语音形式，由这些韵律（音律）形式构成的音位叫非音质音位。又叫超音段音位。包括调位、重位、时位。 调位：主要由音高特征构成的音位叫调位，又叫声调。调位是汉藏语系诸语言中区别词的语言形式的重要手段之一。 重位：主要由音强特征构成的音位叫重位。重音在英语、俄语中是区别词的语音形式和词义的重要手段。构成重位的非音质特征是综合的。 时位：由音长特征构成的音位叫时位。长短音的区别主要表现在元音上，如广东话和许多少数民族语言里，时位都有区别词的语音形式和意义的作用。 4、语流音变就是指在连续的语流中某些语音成分受前后语音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。有时说话人由于种种原因调整语音的快慢、高低、强弱，也会造成语音的某种变化。

(完整版)语言学组合与聚合总结

一、组合关系和和聚合关系的提出 组合关系和聚合关系是索绪尔提出来的现代语言学结构主义的一个重要原理。 组合关系就是两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。简单地说，就是符号与符号相互组合起来的关系。例如"学习外语"，"学习"与"外语"组合，形成述宾关系。 聚合关系就是语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位之间的关系，简单说就是符号与符号之间的替换关系。例如"学习外语"，其中"学习"可以用"研究"替换。 语言的组合关系说明了语言结构的规则，语言的聚合关系说明了替换规则。 二、语音的组合与聚合关系 语音中的每一个音素（音位），它总是处在相邻的音素之间。通过音素组合关系的研究，建立起来音位。 例如：北京话有几个与[a]发音比较接近的元音，从音质角度看，它们是不同的音，它们分别为[a]、[ɑ]、[A]、[ε]。[a]只出现在i和n 的前面，如bai 、ai、ban、an等；[ɑ]只出现在u和ng的前面，如gao、yang、ao、gang等；[A]只出现在音节的最后，如jia、hua、ba 等；。根据这些组合规律我们就可以把它们归纳成为一个音位[a]。汉语拼音方案就是按音位设计的。

聚合关系是出现在一定组合中相同位置上的各语言成分所具有的类聚会同的关系。聚合关系是在对立互补原则的基础上建立的，我们把能够出现在一个音节开头的那个辅音归成一类，那就是声母。声母之间是聚合关系。如有的辅音只出现在i和ü前面，像j、q、x，我们把这三个辅音看作是一个小的类聚，它们在发音上有共同的特点称为舌面音。其他如舌尖前音、舌尖中音、舌尖后音、双唇音、舌根音等类聚。现代汉语中的辅音大部分有双向的聚合。我们可以看下面的z c s 、zh ch sh、j q x。 从可以看到，横向的三个辅音也分别是一种聚合，第一行是舌尖前音的聚合，第二行是舌尖后音的聚合，第三行是舌面音的聚合；同样纵向的三个音也是一种聚合，第一列的三个音是不送气塞擦音的聚合，第二列是送气塞擦音的聚合，第三列是擦音的聚合。 三、词（语素）的组合关系和聚合关系 语素是语言中最小的音义结合体，或者说是最小的语言单位。在语言中，语素不可再分，因为切分语素得到的是音素。语素和语素可组合成词语。 语素的组合和聚合不像语音那样有严整的规律。语素的组合有许多制约的因素。语素组合比较有规律的是一些虚语素，即词缀。如现代汉语中的“阿”总是和表人的语素组合在一起，构成“阿公、阿婆阿Q、阿姨”等。与此类似的还有，例如：子——矮子、才子、担子、胆子、桌子。

知识点热力学与料热力学部分

知识点热力学与料热力学部分

————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：

热力学与材料热力学部分 热力学：用能量转化和守恒的观点来研究物质热运动的客观规律；以实验事实为基础，总结研究系统状态变化过程中的功能转化和热力学过程的方向性问题。 热力学研究能(energy)和能的转变(transformations)规律 材料研究的每个过程离不开热力学 1、材料服役性能 2、材料制备 3、材料微观组织 材料热力学是热力学基本原理在材料设计、制备与使用过程中的应用。 材料热力学是材料科学的重要基础之一。 材料学的核心问题是求得材料成分－组织结构－各种性能之间的关系。问题的前半部分，即材料成分－组织结构的关系要服从一个基本的科学规则，这个基本规则就是材料热力学。在材料的研究逐渐由“尝试法”走向“定量设计”的今天，材料热力学的学习尤其显得重要。 材料热力学是经典热力学和统计热力学理论在材料研究方面的应用，其目的在与揭示材料中的相和组织的形成规律。固态材料中的熔化与凝固以及各类固态相变、相平衡关系和相平衡成分的确定、结构上的物理和化学有序性以及各类晶体缺陷的形成条件等是其主要研究对象。 现代材料科学发展的主要特征之一是对材料的微观层次认识不断进步。利用场离子显微镜和高分辨电子显微镜把这一认识推进到了纳米和小于纳米的层次，已经可以直接观察到从位错形态直至原子实际排列的微观形态。这些成就可能给人们造成一种误解，以为只有在微观尺度上对材料的直接分析才是深刻把握材料组织结构形成规律的最主要内容和最主要途径；以为对那些熵、焓、自有能、活度等抽象概念不再需要更多的加以注意。其实不然，不仅热力学的主要长处在于它的抽象性和演绎性，而且现代材料科学的每一次进步和发展都一直受到经典热力学和统计热力学的支撑和帮助。材料热力学的形成和发展正是材料科学走向成熟的标志之一。工业技术的进步在拉动材料热力学的发展，而材料热力学的发展又在为下一个技术进步准备基础和条件。 材料热力学是热力学理论在材料研究、材料生产活动中的应用。因此这是一门与实践关系十分密切的科学。学习这门课程，不能满足于理解书中的内容，而应当多进行一些对实际材料问题的分析与计算，开始可以是一些简单的、甚至是别人已经解决的问题，然后由易渐难，循序渐进。通过不断的实际分析与计算，增进对热力学理论的理解，加深对热力学的兴趣，进而有自己的心得和成绩。 热力学最基本概念： 1、焓变 enthalpy

简明英语语言学学习重点总结

一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it

语言学第七章知识点总结

语言学第七章知识点总结 Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society. In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context. Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors. 1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalities The verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant 2.The relevant objects 3.The effects of the verbal action Speech Community It refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Our language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world. https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9510543994.html,nguage may determine our thinking patterns

语言学心得

语义研究历史分期中的语文学时期 专业：英美文学学号：20140601012 姓名：任雪娇 自1897年法国学者Michael Breal(布雷尔，1832-1915)发表的《语义学探索》以来，语义学作为语言学的一门独立学科宣告成立。此后，哲学家、逻辑学家、社会学家、语言学家们就开始注意语义研究。那么，首先，什么是语义学呢？语义学又叫词义学，它是以词的内容为研究对象的学科，它的任务是研究词义的性质，词义的发展、演变以及词语词义之间的种种关系，并揭示词义的一般规律。 而我今天将要对语言学时期中的一个时期——传统语言学时期，也就是语文学时期的发展与演变做一个简要的梳理。 （一）语文学时期的四个阶段 在欧洲大陆，语文学时期指的是整个18世纪以前的语言研究。同时，在这一时期，语言学家及哲学家们对文学作品尤其是古希腊--罗马时代的文学作品也进行学术研究，这包括以文学文献为基础的文化研究。从历史上看，“语文学时期”是一个生机勃勃的历史时期，它包括一下几个阶段：古希腊罗马时期、中世纪、文艺复兴时期、现代时期的前夕。 古希腊罗马时期 首先，我们都知道欧洲语言学始于希腊。而古希腊罗马时期的语文学主要是在哲学框架内进行的，因此对语言的本质问题、词源问题、修辞问题以及语音、语法等问题都进行了认真的探讨和研究。在这一时期出现了多种语言学流派，例如：斯多葛学派、亚历山大学派等等。中世纪时期 语法是中世纪学术语言的基础，也是七艺（语法、雄辩术、修辞学、音乐、几何、算术、天文）之一。对于语言学历史来说，中世纪的后半期，也就是我们称为“经院哲学时期”具有很重要的意义。经院哲学非常重视语言学研究，进行了大量的研究工作。在它兴盛时期的研究成果很多，比如说思辨语法（思辨语法是语言学理论发展的一个明确而特殊的阶段，它受到当时基督信仰的加强，同时又反过来加强了基督信仰，它把人类知识所有的分支和学科都统一在它的体系里，是理性的主张与宗教的信仰可以在这一体系内和谐一致。） 文艺复兴时期 文艺复兴运动可以看作是一场发源于14世纪的意大利，然后向外扩展，特别是在欧洲向北扩展的运动。文艺复兴时期学术方面最重要的部分--从意大利开始的对古拉丁语和古希腊语的研究得到了恢复。文艺复兴时期的语法家中，最著名的是彼得罗·拉穆斯，他被称为现代结构主义的先驱。他积极提倡用人文主义方法教授古典语言，主张通过文学作品，而不是通过经院哲学的亚里士多德学说进行教学。 现代时期前夕 到18世纪，欧洲语言学发生了巨大的变化，语言起源问题在那时已不是“哪种语言最古老”或者“上帝用什么语言跟亚当说话”而是对语言最终发展为现代如此有力和灵活的交际系统所处的条件，以及所经过的发展阶段，进行带有更多人类学性质探讨。这一时期出现的威廉·冯·洪堡特就是至今也很著名的语言学家，他认为语言能力具有普遍性，还认为没种语言都是历史的产物，但作为思维和工具的模式，有些语言则比别的语言发达的多。 经验主义 语言学研究方法的不同源自哲学领域的思想纷争。理性主义和经验主义是哲学领域的量大思潮，多个世纪以来一直深深地影响着语言学研究方法。经验主义认为经验来自感官对外间事物的感觉，其带有唯物主义倾向，同时，经验主义也包含着神学唯心主义的因素。著名语言学家曾说过“面对语言的多样性和复杂性，经验主义学派强调各种语言的特殊变化，根据日

传热学知识点总结

Φ-=B A c t t R 1211k R h h δλ=++传热学与工程热力学的关系： a 工程热力学研究平衡态下热能的性质、热能与机械能及其他形式能量之间相互转换的规律， 传热学研究过程和非平衡态热量传递规律。 b 热力不考虑热量传递过程的时间，而传热学时间是重要参数。 c 传热学以热力学第一定律和第二定律为基础。 传热学研究内容 传热学是研究温差引起的热量传递规律的学科，研究热量传递的机理、规律、计算和测试方法。 热传导 a 必须有温差 b 直接接触 c 依靠分子、原子及自由电子等微观粒子热运动而传递热量，不发生宏观的相对位移 d 没有能量形式的转化 热对流 a 必须有流体的宏观运动，必须有温差； b 对流换热既有对流，也有导热； c 流体与壁面必须直接接触； d 没有热量形式之间的转化。 热辐射： a 不需要物体直接接触，且在真空中辐射能的传递最有效。 b 在辐射换热过程中，不仅有能量的转换，而且伴随有能量形式的转化。 c ．只要温度大于零就有．．．．．．．．．能量．．辐射。．．． d ．物体的．．．辐射能力与其温度性质．．．．．．．．．．有关。．．． 传热热阻与欧姆定律 在一个串联的热量传递的过程中，如果通过各个环节的热流量相同，则各串联环节的的总热阻等于各串联环节热阻之和（I 总=I1+I2，则R 总=R1+R2） 第二章 温度场：描述了各个时刻．．．．物体内所有各点．．．．的温度分布。 稳态温度场：：稳态工作条件下的温度场，此时物体中个点的温度不随时间而变 非稳态温度场：工作条件变动的温度场，温度分布随时间而变。 等温面：温度场中同一瞬间相同各点连成的面 等温线：在任何一个二维的截面上等温面表现为 肋效率：肋片的实际散热量ф与假设整个肋表面．．．处于肋基温度．．．．时的理想散热量ф0 之比 接触热阻 Rc :壁与壁之间真正完全接触，增加了附加的传递阻力 三类边界条件 第一类：规定了边界上的温度值 第二类：规定了边界上的热流密度值 第三类：规定了边界上物体与周围流体间的表面．．传热系数．．．．h 及周围．．流体的温度．．．．． 。 导热微分方程所依据的基本定理 傅里叶定律和能量守恒定律 傅里叶定律及导热微分方程的适用范围 适用于：热流密度不是很高，过程作用时间足够长，过程发生的空间尺度范围足够大 不适用的：a 当导热物体温度接近0k 时b 当过程作用时间极短时c 当过成发生的空间尺度极小，与微观粒子的平均自由程相接近时

语言学重点概念总结

Desig n features （定义特征）： the disti nctive features of huma n Ian guage that esse ntially make huma n Ian guage disti nguishable from Ian guages of ani mals. Synchronic （共时的）： said of an approach that studies Ianguage at a theoretical point "in time. Diachro nic （历时的）： said of the study of developme nt of Ian guage and Ian guages over time. Prescriptive （规定式）： to make an authoritaria n stateme nt about the correct ness of a particular use of Ian guage. Descriptive （描写式）： to make an objective and systematic acco unt of the patter ns and use of a Ian guage or variety. Compete nee （语言能力）： uncon scious kno wledge of the system of grammatical rules in a Ian guage. 对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。 Performa nee （语言运用）： the Ianguage actually used by people in speaking or writing. 人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。 Langue （语言）： the Ianguage system shared by a speech community ” 一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。 Parole （言语）： the con crete uttera nces of a speaker. 说话人实际说的话语。 Pho no logy （音系学）： the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guage. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in Ianguages, and to explain the variati ons that occur. Intern ati onal Phon etic Alphabet （国际音标） a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart （the IPA chart）, designed by the Intern ati onal Phon etic Associati on si nee 1888. It has bee n revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. Cardi nal Vowels （基本元音）： a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the descriptio n of the actual vowels of exist ing Ian guages.

语言学期末复习资料整理版

Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period

语言学总结

In chapter seven,I learn about the relationship between language and culture 、London School、Linguists in North Americian、Malinowski Guinea 、SAPIR-WHOF HYPOTHES and sociolinguistics. At the first,I learn the relationshp between language and culture.(1)Language is an essential and importantpart of a given culture ;the impact of culture upon a given language is something intrinsic and indispensable.(2)Culture is a wider syatem that completely includes language as a subsystem.The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.(3)Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality.(4)Language plays a major role in perpetuating culture in part form.(5)Culture affects language. Secondly,,I understand how language relates culture.At the beginning of the eighteenth century,they think that language is either comparative and historical or structural and formalized in https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9510543994.html,ter, at the start of the 20th century ,the study of language was developed in England and North America.In the 1920s ,a school of ANTHROPOLOTICAL STUDY OF LINGUISTICS came into being in England.The meaning of a word greatly depended upon its occurrence in a given context,for example “wood’’.Malinowski created the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUA TION,and J.R.Firth developed the theory of CONTEXT OF SITUATION. M.A.K Halliday further developed this theory,who is the founder of systemic-functional linguistics. Tirdly,I learn a very influential and controversial theory about the relationships between language and culture .Benjamin Lee Whorf is famous in hypothesis concerning language,thought,and culture.His famous theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES was developed with the help of his experience and his study of Hopi ,an American Indian language.What this hypothesis suggests is this :Our language helps mould our way of thinking and,consequently,different language may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.Due to the theory SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHSES,two important points came into the world.one is LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM,and the other is LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY.LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM means that language may determine our thinking patterns,and LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY means that similarity between languages is https://www.sodocs.net/doc/9510543994.html,ter,,Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed,a strong version and a weak version.The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes ,emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak