注塑模具之模具设计与制造外文文献翻译、中英文翻译

外文翻译：

Injection moulding for Mold Design and Manufacture

The mold is the manufacturing industry important craft foundation, in our country, the mold manufacture belongs to the special purpose equipment manufacturing industry. China although very already starts to make the mold and the use mold, but long-term has not formed the industry. Straight stabs 0 centuries 80's later periods, the Chinese mold industry only then drives into the development speedway. Recent years, not only the state-owned mold enterprise had the very big development, the three investments enterprise, the villages and towns (individual) the mold enterprise's development also quite rapidly.

Although the Chinese mold industrial development rapid, but compares with the demand, obviously falls short of demand, its main gap concentrates precisely to, large-scale, is complex, the long life mold domain. As a result of in aspect and so on mold precision, life, manufacture cycle and productivity, China and the international average horizontal and the developed country still had a bigger disparity, therefore, needed massively to import the mold every year .

The Chinese mold industry except must continue to sharpen the productivity; from now on will have emphatically to the profession internal structure adjustment and the state-of-art enhancement. The structure adjustment aspect, mainly is the enterprise structure to the specialized adjustment, the product structure to center the upscale mold development, to the import and export structure improvement, center the upscale automobile cover mold forming analysis and the structure improvement, the multi-purpose compound mold and the compound processing and the laser technology in the mold design manufacture application, the high-speed cutting, the super finishing and polished the technology, the information direction develops .

The recent years, the mold profession structure adjustment and the organizational reform step enlarges, mainly displayed in, large-scale, precise, was complex, the long life, center the upscale mold and the mold standard letter development speed is higher than the common mold product; The plastic mold and the compression casting mold

proportion increases; Specialized mold factory quantity and its productivity increase; "The three investments" and the private enterprise develops rapidly; The joint stock system transformation step speeds up and so on. Distributes from the area looked, take Zhujiang Delta and Yangtze River delta as central southeast coastal area development quickly to mid-west area, south development quickly to north. At present develops quickest, the mold produces the most centralized province is Guangdong and Zhejiang, places such as Jiangsu, Shanghai, Anhui and Shandong also has a bigger development in recent years.

Although our country mold total quantity had at present achieved the suitable scale, the mold level also has the very big enhancement, after but design manufacture horizontal overall rise and fall industry developed country and so on Yu De, America, date, France, Italy many. The current existence question and the disparity mainly display in following several aspects:

(1) The total quantity falls short of demand

Domestic mold assembling one rate only, about 70%. Low-grade mold, center upscale mold assembling oneself rate only has 50% about.

(2) The enterprise organizational structure, the product structure, the technical structure and the import and export structure does not gather

In our country mold production factory to be most is from the labor mold workshop which produces assembles oneself (branch factory), from produces assembles oneself the proportion to reach as high as about 60%, but the overseas mold ultra 70% is the commodity mold. The specialized mold factory mostly is "large and complete", "small and entire" organization form, but overseas mostly is "small but", "is specially small and fine". Domestic large-scale, precise, complex, the long life mold accounts for the total quantity proportion to be insufficient 30%, but overseas in 50% above 2004 years, ratio of the mold import and export is 3.7:1, the import and export balances the after net import volume to amount to 1.32 billion US dollars, is world mold net import quantity biggest country .

(3) The mold product level greatly is lower than the international standard

The production cycle actually is higher than the international water broad

product level low mainly to display in the mold precision, cavity aspect and so on surface roughness, life and structure.

(4) Develops the ability badly, economic efficiency unsatisfactory our country mold enterprise technical personnel proportion low

The level is lower, also does not take the product development, and frequently is in the passive position in the market. Our country each mold staff average year creation output value approximately, ten thousand US dollars, overseas mold industry developed country mostly 15 to10, 000 US dollars, some reach as high as 25 to10, 000 US dollars, relative is our country quite part of molds enterprises also continues to use the workshop type management with it, truly realizes the enterprise which the modernized enterprise manages few

To create the above disparity the reason to be very many, the mold long-term has not obtained the value besides the history in as the product which should have, as well as the most state-owned enterprises mechanism cannot adapt the market economy, but also has the following several reasons: .

The mold material performance, the quality and the variety question often can affect the mold quality, the life and the cost, the domestically produced molding tool steel and overseas imports the steel products to compare has a bigger disparity. Plastic,

plate, equipment energy balance, also direct influence mold level enhancement.

RSP Tooling

Rapid Solidification Process (RSP) Tooling, is a spray forming technology tailored for producing molds and dies [2-4]. The approach combines rapid solidification processing and netshape materials processing in a single step. The general concept involves converting a mold design described by a CAD file to a tooling master using a suitable rapid prototyping (RP) technology such as stereolithography. A pattern transfer is made to a castable ceramic, typically alumina or fused silica. This is followed by spray forming a thick deposit of tool steel (or other alloy) on the pattern to capture the desired shape, surface texture and detail. The resultant metal block is cooled to room temperature and separated from the pattern. Typically, the deposit’s exterior walls are machined square, allowing it to be used as an insert in a holding block such as a MUD frame [5]. The overall turnaround time for tooling is about three days, stating with a master. Molds and dies produced in this way have been used for prototype and production runs in plastic injection molding and die casting.

An important benefit of RSP Tooling is that it allows molds and dies to be made early in the design cycle for a component. True prototype parts can be manufactured to assess form, fit, and function using the same process planned for production. If the part is qualified, the tooling can be run in production as conventional tooling would. Use of a digital database and RP technology allows design modifications to be easily made.

Experimental Procedure

An alumina-base ceramic (Cotronics 780 [6]) was slurry cast using a silicone rubber master die, or freeze cast using a stereolithography master. After setting up, ceramic patterns were demolded, fired in a kiln, and cooled to room temperature. H13 tool steel was induction melted under a nitrogen atmosphere, superheated about

100?C, and pressure-fed into a bench-scale converging/diverging spray nozzle, designed and constructed in-house. An inert gas atmosphere within the spray apparatus minimized in-flight oxidation of the atomized droplets as they deposited onto the tool pattern at a rate of about 200 kg/h. Gas-to-metal mass flow ratio was approximately 0.5.

For tensile property and hardness evaluation, the spray-formed material was sectioned using a wire EDM and surface ground to remove a 0.05 mm thick

heat-affected zone. Samples were heat treated in a furnace that was purged with nitrogen. Each sample was coated with BN and placed in a sealed metal foil packet as a precautionary measure to prevent decarburization.Artificially aged samples were soaked for 1 hour at temperatures ranging from 400 to 700?C, and air cooled. Conventionally heat treated H13 was austenitized at 1010?C for 30 min., air quenched, and double tempered (2 hr plus 2 hr) at 538?C.

Microhardness was measured at room temperature using a Shimadzu Type M Vickers Hardness Tester by averaging ten microindentation readings. Microstructure of the etched (3% nital) tool steel was evaluated optically using an Olympus Model PME-3 metallograph and an Amray Model 1830 scanning electron microscope. Phase composition was analyzed via energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The size distribution of overspray powder was analyzed using a Microtrac Full Range Particle Analyzer after powder samples were sieved at 200 μm to remove coarse flakes. Sample density was evaluated by water displacement using Archimedes’ principle and a Mettler balance (Model AE100).

A quasi 1-D computer code developed at INEEL was used to evaluate multiphase flow behavior inside the nozzle and free jet regions. The code's basic numerical technique solves the steadystate gas flow field through an adaptive grid, conservative variables approach and treats the droplet phase in a Lagrangian manner with full aerodynamic and energetic coupling between the droplets and transport gas. The liquid metal injection system is coupled to the throat gas dynamics, and effects of heat transfer and wall friction are included. The code also includes a nonequilibrium

solidification model that permits droplet undercooling and recalescence. The code was used to map out the temperature and velocity profile of the gas and atomized droplets within the nozzle and free jet regions.

Results and Discussion

Spray forming is a robust rapid tooling technology that allows tool steel molds and dies to be produced in a straightforward manner. Each was spray formed using a ceramic pattern generated from a RP master.

Particle and Gas Behavior

Particle mass frequency and cumulative mass distribution plots for H13 tool steel sprays are given in Figure 1. The mass median diameter was determined to be 56 μm by interpolation of size corresponding to 50% cumulative mass. The area mean diameter and volume mean diameter were calculated to be 53 μm and 139 μm, respectively. Geometric standard deviation, d=(d84/d16)? , is 1.8, where d84 and d16 are particle diameters corresponding to 84% and 16% cumulative mass in Figure 1.

Figure1. Cumulative mass and mass frequency plots of particles in H13 tool step

sprays.

Figure2 gives computational results for the multiphase velocity flow field (Figure 2a), and H13 tool steel solid fraction (Figure2b), inside the nozzle and free jet

regions. Gas velocity increases until reaching the location of the shock front, at which point it precipitously decreases, eventually decaying exponentially outside the nozzle. Small droplets are easily perturbed by the velocity field, accelerating inside the nozzle and decelerating outside. After reaching their terminal velocity, larger droplets (?150 μm) are less perturbed by the flow field due to their greater momentum.

It is well known that high particle cooling rates in the spray jet (103-106 K/s) and bulk deposit (1-100 K/min) are present during spray forming [7]. Most of the particles in the spray have undergone recalescence, resulting in a solid fraction of about 0.75. Calculated solid fraction profiles of small (?30 μm) and large (?150 μm) droplets with distance from the nozzle inlet, are shown in Figure 2b.

Spray-Formed Deposits

This high heat extraction rate reduces erosion effects at the surface of the tool pattern. This allows relatively soft, castable ceramic pattern materials to be used that would not be satisfactory candidates for conventional metal casting processes. With suitable processing conditions, fine surface detail can be successfully transferred from the pattern to spray-formed mold. Surface roughness at the molding surface is pattern dependent. Slurry-cast commercial ceramics yield a surface roughness of about 1 μm Ra, suitable for many molding applications. Deposition of tool steel onto glass plates has yielded a specular surface finish of about 0.076 μm Ra. At the current state of development, dimensional repeatability of spray-formed molds, starting with a common master, is about ±0.2%.

Figure 2. Calculated particle and gas behavior in nozzle and free jet regions.

(a) Velocity profile.(b) Solid fraction.

Chemistry

The chemistry of H13 tool steel is designed to allow the material to withstand the temperature, pressure, abrasion, and thermal cycling associated with demanding applications such as die casting. It is the most popular die casting alloy worldwide and second most popular tool steel for plastic injection molding. The steel has low carbon content (0.4 wt.%) to promote toughness, medium chromium content (5 wt.%) to provide good resistance to high temperature softening, 1 wt% Si to improve high temperature oxidation resistance, and small molybdenum and vanadium additions (about 1%) that form stable carbides to increase resistance to erosive wear[8]. Composition analysis was performed on H13 tool steel before and after spray forming.Results, summarized in Table 1, indicate no significant variation in alloy additions.

Microstructure

The size, shape, type, and distribution of carbides found in H13 tool steel is dictated by the processing method and heat treatment. Normally the commercial steel is machined in the mill annealed condition and heat treated

(austenitized/quenched/tempered) prior to use. It is typically austenitized at about 1010?C, quenched in air or oil, and carefully tempered two or three times at 540 to 650?C to obtain the required combination of hardness, thermal fatigue resistance, and toughness.

Commercial, forged, ferritic tool steels cannot be precipitation hardened because

after electroslag remelting at the steel mill, ingots are cast that cool slowly and form

coarse carbides. In contrast, rapid solidification of H13 tool steel causes alloying additions to remain largely in solution and to be more uniformly distributed in the matrix [9-11]. Properties can be tailored by artificial aging or conventional heat treatment.

A benefit of artificial aging is that it bypasses the specific volume changes that occur during conventional heat treatment that can lead to tool distortion. These specific volume changes occur as the matrix phase transforms from ferrite to austenite to tempered martensite and must be accounted for in the original mold design. However, they cannot always be reliably predicted. Thin sections in the insert, which may be desirable from a design and production standpoint, are oftentimes not included as the material has a tendency to slump during austenitization or distort during quenching. Tool distortion is not observed during artificial aging of

spray-formed tool steels because there is no phase transformation.

注塑模具之模具设计与制造

模具是制造业的重要工艺基础，在我国，模具制造属于专用设备制造业。中国虽然很早就开始制造模具和使用模具，但长期未形成产业。直到20世纪80年代后期，中国模具工业才驶入发展的快车道。近年，不仅国有模具企业有了很大发展，三资企业、乡镇（个体）模具企业的发展也相当迅速。

虽然中国模具工业发展迅速，但与需求相比，显然供不应求，其主要缺口集中于精密、大型、复杂、长寿命模具领域。由于在模具精度、寿命、制造周期及生产能力等方面，中国与国际平均水平和发达国家仍有较大差距，因此，每年需要大量进口模具。

中国模具产业除了要继续提高生产能力，今后更要着重于行业内部结构的调整和技术发展水平的提高。结构调整方面，主要是企业结构向专业化调整，产品结构向着中高档模具发展，向进出口结构的改进，中高档汽车覆盖件模具成形分析及结构改进、多功能复合模具和复合加工及激光技术在模具设计制造上的应用、高速切削、超精加工及抛光技术、信息化方向发展。

近年，模具行业结构调整和体制改革步伐加大，主要表现在，大型、精密、复杂、长寿命、中高档模具及模具标准件发展速度高于一般模具产品；塑料模和压铸模比例增大；专业模具厂数量及其生产能力增加；“三资”及私营企业发展迅速；股份制改造步伐加快等。从地区分布来看，以珠江三角洲和长江三角洲为中心的东南沿海地区发展快于中西部地区，南方的发展快于北方。目前发展最快、模具生产最为集中的省份是广东和浙江，江苏、上海、安徽和山东等地近几年也有较大发展。

虽然我国模具总量目前已达到相当规模，模具水平也有很大提高，但设计制造水平总体上落后于德、美、日、法、意等工业发达国家许多。当前存在的问题和差距主要表现在以下几方面：

（1）总量供不应求

国内模具自配率只有70%左右。其中低档模具供过于求，中高档模具自配率只有50%左右。

（2）企业组织结构、产品结构、技术结构和进出口结构均不合理

我国模具生产厂中多数是自产自配的工模具车间（分厂），自产自配比例高达60%左右，而国外模具超过70%属商品模具。专业模具厂大多是“大而全”、“小而全”的组织形式，而国外大多是“小而专”、“小而精”。国内大型、精

密、复杂、长寿命的模具占总量比例不足30%，而国外在50%以上。2004年，模

具进出口之比为3.7:1，进出口相抵后的净进口额达13.2亿美元，为世界模具净进口量最大的国家。

（3）模具产品水平大大低于国际水平，生产周期却高于国际水平

产品水平低主要表现在模具的精度、型腔表面粗糙度、寿命及结构等方面。

（4）开发能力较差，经济效益欠佳

我国模具企业技术人员比例低，水平较低，且不重视产品开发，在市场中经常处于被动地位。我国每个模具职工平均年创造产值约合1万美元，国外模具工业发达国家大多是15～20万美元，有的高达25～30万美元，与之相对的是我国相当一部分模具企业还沿用过去作坊式管理，真正实现现代化企业管理的企业较

少。

随着全球经济的发展，新的技术革命不断取得新的进展和突破，技术的飞跃和发展已经成为推动世界经济增长的重要因素。市场经济的不断发展，促使工业产品越来越向多品种、小批量、高质量、低成本的方向发展，为了保持和加强产品在市场上的竞争力，产品的开发周期、生产周期越来越短，于是对制造各种产品的关键工艺装备——模具的要求越来越苛刻。一方面企业为追求规模效益，使得模具向着高速、精密、长寿命方向发展；另一方面企业为了满足多品种、小批量、产品更新换代快、赢得市场的需要，要求模具向着制造周期短、成本低的快速经济的方向发展。计算机、激光、电子、新材料、新技术的发展，使得快速经济制模技术如虎添翼，应用范围不断扩大，类型不断增多，创造的经济效益和社会效益越来越显著。快速经济制模技术与传统的机械加工相比，具有制模周期短、成本低、精度与寿命又能满足生产上的使用要求，是综合经济效益比较显著的一类制造模具的技术，概括起来，有以下几种类别快速凝固加工技术表面成型制模技术浇铸成型制模技术挤压成型技术

快速凝固加工工艺现在应永最多的是快速凝固加工工艺。

快速凝固加工工艺（RSP），是一种适合生产注塑模具和冲压模具的喷射成形技术。这种方法把快速凝固加工和网状材料加工结合在一个单步执行。从CAD 软件到高精度工具钢所使用的一个合适的快速原型（RP）技术解释了一般概念上所涉及模具设计转换，如立体平板印刷。一般是用氧化铝或熔融石英把一个模板转变为一个浇注陶瓷。紧接着是用喷射成形喷一层厚厚的工具钢（或其它合金）沉积物在模板上的方式获得所需的形状、表面纹理和细节。由此合成的金属块冷却到室温与模具分离。通常，沉积物的外表面被加工成方形，在一个控股块中能够被用来作为插入物，如MUD结构[5]。在一个机器工作的情况下，加工总周转时

间大约是3天。注塑模具和冲压模具的这种生产方式已被用于塑料注塑和冲压模具的原型和生产运行。

快速凝固加工工艺一个很大的好处是，它让制造注塑模具和冲压模具的过程成为设计周期前期的一部分。真正的原型零件用相同的生产加工计划可以被制成预定形状、尺寸和性能。若零件是合格的，它能像普通零件一样被用于生产加工。使用数字化资料库和RP技术可以很容易的修改设计上的内容。

实验步骤

氧化铝基陶瓷（Cotronics780[6]）是浆体通过硅橡胶模具或格式机冷冻模具铸造的。完成后，陶瓷模型脱离模具，在干燥室烘干并冷却到室温。H13工具钢是由在内部设计和建造的温度约100?C、压力由有工作台刻度的收敛/发散喷雾嘴控制的氮气保护层中诱导融化的。喷雾装置在惰性气体中能最大限度地减少漂浮状态的氧化液滴，因为它们存放的加工模式比率大约是200公斤/小时。气体到金属的质量流量比大约是0.5。

对于延伸性和硬度的要求，喷射成形材料用电火花加工来去除表面0.05毫米厚的热影响区。在没有氮气的火炉中对样品进行热处理。为防止脱碳，每个涂有氧化硼的样品都放置在一个密封的金属箔包内。把样品放在400至700?C的温度范围内人工老化，随后空冷。常规热处理H13钢的是在1010?C的温度持续30分钟使它奥氏体化，随后空冷，再在538?C的温度两次回火。

在室温下，微硬度测量使用的是平均每10微刻度读数的M型维氏硬度测试仪。工具钢被腐蚀（3％硝酸浸蚀液）的微细结构的光学评估使用奥林巴斯的PME-3金相显微照片和安瑞1830年电子扫描显微镜。相成分通过能量分散光学（EDS）分析。超范围喷涂粉末的分析由麦奇克系列微粒分析器在来筛去200微米的粉末样品覆盖的粗糙表面。样品密度由利用阿基米德原理工作的梅特勒天平（型号AE100）的排水量来测试。

用INEEL（国家工程与环境实验室）开发的一维计算机章程用来评价多相流在自由射流喷嘴的表现。该章程的基本数值技术解决了稳态气流场通过合适网格，全气动和强力耦合之间的水滴和运输气体的保守变量的方法和采用液滴相的拉格朗日公式。液态金属喷射系统耦合的气体力学，包括热传递和摩擦在内。该

章程还包括一个允许液滴冷却和升温的非平衡凝固模型。该章程用于描述用射流喷嘴喷出的气体和雾化液滴的温度和速度变化情况。

粒子和气体的状态

图1给出了喷射H13工具钢的粒子聚集频率和累积频率分布图。中央块状直径被确定的56微米为插补尺寸的50％的累积频率。这些面积平均直径和体积平均直径是分别被计算出的53微米和139微米。几何标准偏差是1.8，

d=(d84/d16)1/2，d84和d16是粒子直径相应的84％和16％的累积量。

图1 喷射H13工具钢的粒子聚集频率和累积频率分布

图2给出了在射流喷嘴里多相流场速度的计算结果（图2a），和H13工具钢的凝固体分数线（图2b）。气体速度增长至激震前沿位置时会急剧下降，最终在喷嘴外成倍衰退。小水滴很容易被速度场干扰，在喷嘴内加速喷嘴外减速。在达到其终级速度后，较大的水滴（～150微米）因为其较大的动力受流场干扰较小。

众所周知，目前的喷射成形高速粒子在喷嘴（103-106开/秒）和大部分沉积物（1-100开/分）的冷却速度[7]。大多数粒子在喷射中经历了复辉而造成的凝固体分数大约是0.75。计算出的从喷嘴喷出的或小（～30微米）或大（～150微米）的凝固体分数。

图2 气体和微粒在射流喷嘴里多相流场。(a)速度分布图 (b)凝固体分数线

喷射成形沉积

这种高温提取率模式降低了因腐蚀而影响工具表面质量。这是相对灵活的，浇注陶瓷材料的模式将取代难以令人满意的常规金属铸造过程。通过合适的加工条件，喷射成形模具模式可以制造出优质的表面质量。表面粗糙度因成型表面的质量而定。商业浆体生产的适合许多成型应用的铸造陶瓷的表面粗糙度大约是1微米。沉积工具钢在钢化玻璃上产生的定向反射面抛光粗糙度大约是0.076微米。在初电流阶段，一个普通的机床来重复性空间喷射成形模具大约是±0.2％。

化学性质

H13工具钢的化学性质要求是使材料承受温度、压力、磨损和热循环等要求苛刻的应用，如冲压模具。这是最流行的冲压模具合金也是全球第二受欢迎的塑料注塑工具钢。这种钢以低含碳量（0.4％）来提高韧性，以中等含铬量（5％）来提供良好的抗高温软化性，以1％的硅含量来改善抗高温氧化性，以少量钼和钒（约1％）形成稳定的碳化物来提高耐磨性[8]。喷射成形前后对H13工具钢的成分分析，说明在合金补充后没有显著的变化。

商业用的锻造铁素体工具钢因为钢铁厂的铸块慢慢冷却形成粗糙碳化物而不能被沉淀硬化。与此相反，快速凝固的H13工具钢因为合金增加的原因在很大程度上解决了这个问题，并更均匀地分布于模型[9-11]。其性能可以被人工老化或常规热处理改变。

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济南大学泉城学院 毕业设计外文资料翻译 题目现代快速经济制造模具技术 专业机械制造及其自动化 班级专升本1302班 学生刘计良 学号2013040156 指导教师刘彦 二〇一五年三月十六日

Int J Adv Manuf Technol ,(2011) 53:1–10DOI 10.1007/s00170-010-2796-y Modular design applied to beverage-container injection molds Ming-Shyan Huang & Ming-Kai Hsu Received: 16 March 2010 / Accepted: 15 June 2010 / Published online: 25 June 2010 # Springer-Verlag London Limited 2010 Modular design applied to beverage-container injection molds The Abstract: This work applies modular design concepts to designating beverage-container injection molds. This study aims to develop a method of controlling costs and time in relation to mold development, and also to improve product design. This investigation comprises two parts: functional-ity coding, and establishing a standard operation procedure, specifically designed for beverage-container injection mold design and manufacturing. First, the injection mold is divided into several modules, each with a specific function. Each module is further divided into several structural units possessing sub-function or sub-sub-function. Next, dimen-sions and specifications of each unit are standardized and a compatible interface is constructed linking relevant units. This work employs a cup-shaped beverage container to experimentally assess the performance of the modular design approach. The experimental results indicate that the modular design approach to manufacturing injection molds shortens development time by 36% and reduces costs by 19 23% compared with the conventional ap-proach. Meanwhile, the information on

英文文献及中文翻译

毕业设计说明书 英文文献及中文翻译 学院：专 2011年6月 电子与计算机科学技术软件工程

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Dashboard From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about a control panel placed in the front of the car. For other uses, see Dashboard (disambiguation). The dashboard of a Bentley Continental GTC car A dashboard (also called dash, instrument panel (IP), or fascia) is a control panel located directly ahead of a vehicle's driver, displaying instrumentation and controls for the vehicle's operation. Contents 1.Etymology 2.Dashboard features 3.Padding and safety 4.Fashion in instrumentation 5.See also 6.References Etymology Horse-drawn carriage dashboard Originally, the word dashboard applied to a barrier of wood or leather fixed at the front of a horse-drawn carriage or sleigh to protect the driver from mud or other debris "dashed up" (thrown up) by the horses' hooves.[1] Commonly these boards did not perform any additional function other than providing a convenient handhold for ascending into the driver's seat, or a small clip with which to secure the reins when not in use. When the first "horseless carriages" were constructed in the late 19th century, with engines mounted beneath the driver such as the Daimler Stahlradwagen, the simple dashboard was retained to protect occupants from debris thrown up by the cars' front wheels. However, as car design evolved to position the motor in front of the driver, the dashboard became a panel that protected vehicle occupants from the heat and oil of the engine. With gradually increasing mechanical complexity, this panel formed a convenient location for the placement of gauges and minor controls, and from this evolved the modern instrument panel,